Consul General Research Articles

Science Diplomacy as Assessed by Heads of Representative Offices of the Russian Federation in Switzerland

Introduction. The article analyses the relevant content of the “science diplomacy” concept and describes the key trends of its implementation, taking into account the points of view of current Russian diplomats on the problem. Science diplomacy is becoming a relevant area of diplomatic activity under the conditions of modern globalization processes. As an important area of the activity of the state, it implies not only the establishment of effective science cooperation with other countries but also optimal use of its own scientific potential with a view to upholding the national interests and improving the image of the state. Methods and materials. The authors have reviewed a number of expert points of view from modern researchers. Based on the use of general and special scientific methods, some important conclusions have been drawn concerning the specifics of the development and relevant content of science diplomacy. By comparing and systematising the empirical data obtained from a number of sources, some scientifically significant directions of state activity in this area have been determined. Analysis. By summarising cases from diplomatic practice, the authors seek to determine the role of science diplomacy in the implementation of the current foreign policy tasks of the Russian Federation. According to the results of interviews with S.V. Garmonin, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Russian Federation in the Swiss Confederation, and A.B. Dorovskikh, Consul General of Russia in Geneva, the basic principles of the practical filling of the “science diplomacy” concept in the activities of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs are formulated. Results. The authors come to the conclusion about the consistent improvement of the forms and methods of implementing the scientific direction of Russian diplomacy. At the same time, against the background of a deterioration of the international environment and the politicisation of many areas of international cooperation by the countries of the collective West, there exists the task of further improving the effectiveness of the activities of Russian diplomatic structures to defend the scientific and technological sovereignty of the country. Authors’ contribution. E.A. Antyukhova wrote the sections “Introduction” and “Results,” participated together with V.D. Olshanskaya in writing the section “Materials and Methods,” and prepared the final scientific edition of the text of the work. I.V. Kuznetsov developed the concept of the article and the questionnaire for the interview. V.D. Olshanskaya and E.A. Antyukhova wrote the sections “Analysis” and “Materials and Methods” and also acted as an interviewer.

Correction to: “May God have mercy on his black soul”: Consul General Olof Lamm’s Private Diplomatic Efforts to Save Jews from Nazi Persecution

Correction to: “May God have mercy on his black soul”: Consul General Olof Lamm’s Private Diplomatic Efforts to Save Jews from Nazi Persecution

Consul General of Kazakhstan visited Üsküdar University

Consul General of Kazakhstan visited Üsküdar University

A.G. Yakovlev: Consul General of Russia in the Holy Land

A.G. Yakovlev: Consul General of Russia in the Holy Land

“May God have mercy on his black soul”: Consul General Olof Lamm’s Private Diplomatic Efforts to Save Jews from Nazi Persecution

Abstract This article examines the private diplomatic efforts of Olof Lamm. A Swedish Jewish ex-diplomat and businessman, he used his personal network to protest against Nazi persecution of the Jews in Germany, and informally lobbied the United States to increase its immigration quotas. Shedding light on these informal back-channel diplomatic networks, the author provides examples of the attitudes and obstacles Lamm faced when dealing with individuals, and reveals how those he petitioned justified their defense of Nazi ideology and actions and their own restrictive immigration policies.

Letter to the Editor

July 27, 2022To the Editor:Back in 1995 and 1999, I authored two articles in The Polish Review on Poland's effort to gain entry into the NATO Alliance, the Polish American Congress’ key role in this endeavor, and my involvement from 1993 to 1999 in this ultimately successful enterprise.1Here is a brief “postscript” on my experience. It comes at a timely moment, in connection with NATO's, and Poland's, response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine. In sharing my story with your readers, I am well aware that other ordinary citizens who worked for Poland's entry into NATO likely did far more significant things. Unfortunately, I have not seen any reference to this in print. So here's my story “for the record.”It all began in December 1997 when I got a telephone call from the Polish Consul General in Chicago, Ryszard Sarkowicz. He said he had been in contact with Wisconsin State Senator Richard Grobschmidt, whose district included many Polish Americans. Senator Grobschmidt agreed to submit a resolution supporting Poland's entry into NATO and to get it approved in both houses of the state legislature.In fact, Senator Grobschmidt, a Democrat, and his colleagues, Democrats Roger Breske, Brian Burke, and Kevin Shibilski, and Republicans Gary Drzewiecki and Robert Welch had already authored such a resolution, joined by thirteen concurring sponsors in the State Assembly, Democrats Peter Bock, Barbara Gronemus, Donald Hasenohrl, James Kreuser, Walter Kunicki, Jeff Plale, Rosemary Potter, and John Ryba, and Republicans John Dobyns, John Gard, Joseph Handrick, Alvin Ott, and Scott Walker.The resolution had been referred to the Senate committee on Economic Development, Housing, and Government Operations. It gave six reasons for approval—most notably that Poland, as a free and democratic country, was indeed prepared to be a contributing NATO member, that it was in the U.S's national interest to maintain and expand NATO to ensure the peace, stability, and prosperity of post-communist Central Europe, and that NATO's mission would be enhanced by doing so.The Senate committee scheduled a hearing on the resolution for January 7, 1998, in Madison, Wisconsin's capital. In my chat with the Consul General, he asked that I speak in its favor. At first, I was skeptical—amending the NATO treaty to admit Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic was the responsibility of the U.S. Senate in Washington, DC, not the state legislature in Madison. When the Consul persisted, I agreed to go. I then asked a friend, Terry Witkowski, a Milwaukee City government official and president of the influential Milwaukee Society lodge of the Polish National Alliance fraternal, to accompany me.My testimony took all of about forty seconds! The Committee Chair, Senator Gwen Moore of Milwaukee, stopped me in mid-sentence and said, “Thank you Professor. I believe we are now prepared to vote on this resolution.” It was then approved by a 4–0 vote. Senate passage came days later, on January 15, 1998.But Assembly approval was blocked due to a squabble between the Democrat-controlled Senate and the Republican-controlled Assembly. I learned this from Senator Grobschmidt who was pessimistic about any early settlement of the dispute. But he then encouraged me to call the Republican Speaker of the Assembly on the matter. I did so and reached Rep. Gard (the Speaker's deputy) and asked why the Assembly was refusing to even take up the bill. At this point, Rep. Gard asked me my name and where I lived! I gladly assured him I was a Wisconsin resident. Then I repeated my request, and in the strongest language I could muster.Rep. Gard promised to call me back on the matter and did so just twenty minutes later, saying that the Assembly would indeed bring up the resolution the next week. On March 25, the Assembly did so, approving by a concurring resolution.The joint resolution was then immediately forwarded to the President of the United States, the President pro tem of the U.S. Senate, the two U.S. Senators from Wisconsin, Herbert Kohl and Russell Feingold, and Poland's ambassador to the U.S.On April 30, 1998, the U.S. Senate approved extending NATO membership to Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic by a vote of 80–19. (67 votes were needed to amend the NATO treaty.)2 Both U.S. Senators from Wisconsin voted for NATO expansion.3 Then, and only after all sixteen NATO members had formally approved expansion, the three states joined NATO in April 1999, the fiftieth anniversary of its founding.It had taken six long, tough years of lobbying to achieve this breakthrough; later expansions of NATO in 2004, 2009, 2018, and 2020 have since gone swiftly and smoothly. In 2022, with Finland and Sweden seeking to join NATO in the wake of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the alliance was on the verge of including thirty-two member states with over 950 million inhabitants.4Sincerely,

The Yeames family and the British General Consulate at the Black Sea ports, 1819-1821

The objective of this study is to analyze a fragment of the history of British diplomacy on duty in the territory of the Russian Empire between 1819 and 1821. Our attention will be focused on the work of the British Consul General, James Yeames, settled in Odessa, the residence of the Consulate General of the Black Sea Port, who at the beginning of 1819 would take over the position from his father, Henry Savage Yeames. Starting from the existing historical studies on this subject, focused mainly on the period of 1803-1819, we intend to continue both the analysis of the activity of the British consulate and of the consul Yeames using different historiographical sources, such as memoirs, archival documents and special studies dedicated to this subject. The questions raised in this text on issues of British diplomacy, such as what salary the consul in Odessa had, how the resources of the consulate were managed, what tasks James Yeames had to accomplish, what the greatest challenges in the job description were, will be answered as a result of our analysis.

THE TRACE OF TURKISH-HUNGARIAN FRIENDSHIP: THE OPENING OF ‘MACAR KARDEŞLER CADDESI’

The inauguration of ‘Macar Kardeşler Caddesi (Hungarian Brothers Boulevard)’ in Fatih district, Istanbul, in 1917 was an important initiative for the improvement of the neighbourhoods that suffered from fires there and a symbol of Turkish-Hungarian friendship. In light of the fact that the Hungarians, an ally in World War I, had inaugurated an avenue in Budapest named for the Ottoman Sultan of that time, the Istanbul Municipality went into action and took the decision to bestow this name on an avenue stretching from Saraçhane Park to Millet Library. This area encompassed a small portion of the quarter of the city that was largely destroyed by the Çırçır Harik (Çırçır Fire) on 23 August 1908. Although the Istanbul Municipality announced the inauguration of Macar Kardeşler Caddesi with a decision dated 28 March 1916, construction of the avenue took time and finally became a reality thanks to the Ottoman State’s Consul General in Budapest, who continually kept the matter of the Municipality’s decision on the agenda. Macar Kardeşler Caddesi was opened in a ceremony attended by Turkish and Hungarian officials but the Istanbul public showed little interest in the ceremony. Even though the matter was somewhat important to the local public because of the expropriation actions taking place during the rehabilitation of the burned-out areas, people were living under extraordinary wartime conditions so the issues of city improvement and Turkish-Hungarian friendship were not considered particularly urgent.

Дружина консула – авторка роману про українських дипломатів

The article outlines the main stages of the fate of the Ukrainian writer, translator and public figure Valeria O’Connor-Vilinska and the path of her novel „In Emigration” to the reader. The research on the Consul General’s wife as the author of a novel about Ukrainian diplomats is a part of the Women’s Face of Ukrainian Diplomacy project. It was initiated by the Scientific Society for the History of Diplomacy and International Relations in 2021 to mark the 30th anniversary of the restoration of state independence of Ukraine. Being published 75 years after the author’s death the literary work drew readers’ attention to little-known events in diplomatic history. At the same time the work contained consonant assessments of the painful problems of young diplomacy expressed in the memoirs of contemporaries. It is noted that the peculiarity of the novel is that it was based on the true history of the Ukrainian Consulate General in Zurich, her own life experience of the Consul General’s wife as a direct participant in the events.

Untold Stories of Polish Heroes from World War II

Untold Stories of Polish Heroes from World War II

A Nineteenth-Century Catholic Translation of the Qur’an into Italian by Vincenzo Calza, Pontifical Consul General of Algiers

This article addresses the first complete Italian translation of the Qur’an, Il Corano, versione italiana con commento e una notizia biografica di Macometto, which was authored by Vincenzo Calza, the first Pontifical General Consul in Algiers, and published in 1847. After contextualising the author and his work with a brief biographical introduction, the article identifies the origins of Calza’s interest in his study of Islam and the Qur’anic text, as well as his objective in engaging with these subjects. It then turns to his translation, Il Corano, and traces back the sources used by Calza in his introduction to and translation of the Qur’anic text, and the critical apparatus he employed. Calza himself claimed that his Qur’an translation was based on the original Arabic text with the help of Kazimisrki’s translation, Le Koran, and Carlo Alfonso Nallino has stated that Calza’s translation relied heavily on Kazimirski’s first flawed edition of Le Koran (1840), which was, in turn, based on Claude-Étienne Savary’s 1783 translation. Through textual analysis and comparison, in this article we find that, in fact, Calza relied entirely on the second, 1841, edition of Kazimirski's Le Koran, in which Kazimirski corrected many errors that were present in the first edition. Calza also selectively adopted elements from Kazimirski's introduction to his translation, and, through this, much of his methodological apparatus.

Архитектура консульств инженера Юлия Жданова

Статья посвящена творчеству русского инженера Ю.П. Жданова в Харбине. Выделены объекты, в которых располагались консульские учреждения: нидерландское консульство в особняке Чистякова, консульство Японии в здании Харбинского отделения Южно-Маньчжурской железной дороги и две постройки, по некоторым данным, его авторства – консульство Португалии в особняке Скидельского и резиденция генерального консула Японии. Представлен анализ объемно планировочных и стилистических особенностей этих зданий. Приводится краткий экскурс в историю развития консульских учреждений в Маньчжурии. Прослеживаются этапы присутствия России на Дальнем Востоке и ее влияние. Полученные результаты являются основой для дальнейшего исследования творчества русских архитекторов в городах Маньчжурии (Северо-Восточный Китай) в период первой половины XX века.

Wolność polityczna niepodległej Ukrainy w kontekście starań Polaków mieszkających we Lwowie o odzyskanie kościoła św. Marii Magdaleny

Publikacja jest analizą przypadku kościoła św. Marii Magdaleny we Lwowie i starań parafian o odzyskanie świątyni dla parafii i wiernych w kontekście rzeczywistości miasta pogranicza, jakim był i jest wielonarodowy Lwów. W oparciu o informacje uzyskane w czasie rozmów z Konsul Generalną RP we Lwowie, Kurią Metropolitalną we Lwowie, proboszczem parafii św. Marii Magdaleny, naczelniczką Wydziału Kultury Miasta Lwowa, naczelniczą Wydziału Ochrony Środowiska Historycznego Miasta Lwowa, dyrektorami Lwowskiej Sali Muzyki Organowej i Kameralnej we Lwowie, dyrektorką polskiej Szkoły im. św. Marii Magdaleny we Lwowie i parafianką parafii św. Marii Magdaleny, jak również o ukraińskie akty prawne oraz artykuły w ukraińskiej i polskiej prasie opisano kolejne etapy sporu o odzyskanie kościoła, jego upolitycznienie, a także wyszczególniono polityków i aktorów związanych ze sporem. Podjęto również próbę odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy trzydzieści lat niepodległości Ukrainy spowodowało rozszerzenie, czy ograniczenie rzeczywistej wolności politycznej tego kraju, ze szczególnym naciskiem na kwestię, czy kraj ten stał się wolny od wpływów poradzieckich oraz czy jest wolny w stopniu, jaki umożliwia egzekwowanie własnego prawa.

“The Roof of the World” at the Crossroads of Anglo-Soviet Geopolitical Interests (1917–1922)

The Anglo-Bolshevik confrontation in the Pamirs, as well as the problem of establishing Soviet authority in the region, is poorly studied problem. The revolutionary events and the events of the Civil War in the Pamirs are still not well considered and not completely clear. This is primarily attributable to a lack of examination of archival material. The documents, which are being analysed in academic literature for the first time, provide a better understanding of the events that took place in the region. The article focuses on the intelligence and anti-Bolshevik efforts in the Pamirs and neighbouring regions of the British Consul General in Kashgar, Percy Etherton. From the reports and messages of Etherton himself, it becomes clear that he actively attracted both the local population and anti-Bolshevik-minded Russians for intelligence purposes. Separately, we can emphasise the widespread engagements of the Ismailis of the Pamirs and Ismaili peers, some of whom sought to prevent the establishment of Soviet power in the region and were ready to rely even on the Afghan Sunnis and Bukharans, as well as enlist the support of the British. The article reviews the struggle of the Bolsheviks to establish their power in the Pamirs and their counterintelligence measures against the actions of the British in the region. The subject of the study is the methods used by the opposing sides, the matter of maintaining support and why the anti-Bolshevik efforts of the British were generally unsuccessful. Drawing on archival documents and a number of studies, the course of the struggle against ant-Soviet forces and insurgents is reconstructed. The Bolsheviks were interested in the Pamirs themselves as a route by which to “export” the revolution to British India, as part of their policy of spreading their ideology in Asia. These are all little-known pieces of the region's history New archival materials have given a different perspective on the events that took place in the Pamirs between 1917 and 1922.

Envisioning Greek Refugees as ‘Farmers for Australia’: Christy Freeleagus, Land Settlement and Immigration Restriction in White Australia

In the early 1920s the Greek Consul General in Queensland, Christy Freeleagus, attempted to persuade Australian politicians, diplomats and immigration officials to grant assisted passage and allotments of land to Greek refugees. Making representations in the United Kingdom and Australia, Freeleagus claimed that Greek refugees, who were displaced due to an imposed transfer of populations between Greece and Turkey in 1923, would make ideal agricultural settlers. While Freeleagus’ representations for a Greek land settlement scheme were ultimately unsuccessful, his advocacy reveals how Australia’s preference for British immigration overshadowed any likelihood that displaced Greeks could be humanitarianly assisted to immigrate and resettle in Australia as farmers. By focusing on Freeleagus’ advocacy and the refusal of Australian immigration officials to assist displaced Greeks, this article ties Australian history to studies on Greek-Turkish population exchange. It also reveals how the interwar dynamics of land settlement and immigration restriction in White Australia were interlinked.

Review: <i>Mongolia in the Works of the Consul General of the Russian Empire in Urga </i><i>Ya.P. Shishmarev. Some Thoughts on Russia’s Right to the Amur in Documents and Publications </i>(to the 160th Anniversary of the Consulate General of Russia in Mongolia), Compiled by A.I. Shinkovoi, Yu.V. Kuzmin, Irkutsk, Baikal State University Publ., 2021, 342 p

Review: <i>Mongolia in the Works of the Consul General of the Russian Empire in Urga </i><i>Ya.P. Shishmarev. Some Thoughts on Russia’s Right to the Amur in Documents and Publications </i>(to the 160th Anniversary of the Consulate General of Russia in Mongolia), Compiled by A.I. Shinkovoi, Yu.V. Kuzmin, Irkutsk, Baikal State University Publ., 2021, 342 p

Authorized Representatives of the Council of Lithuania in Moscow in 1918

Based on the documents from Lithuanian and German archives, the material kept in the Manuscripts Department of the Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, the information published in the press and collections of documents, the article analyzes the context and motives of the appointment of Česlovas L(i)andsbergis to the position of the authorized representative of the Council of Lithuania in Moscow (Russia), the content of the powers vested in him, the conflict with the German Consul General in Moscow, and the motives of his removal from office. It also addresses the circumstances of delegating Tadas Šulcas to serve as the general country representative of the State Council of Lithuania in Moscow, the specificities of the activities of the Moscow Representation of the Authorized Representative of the Council of Lithuania, and return to Lithuania. Particular attention is paid to Germany’s position concerning Lithuania’s diplomatic representation (April — May and July — October), the efforts of German consuls general in Moscow and Petrograd to turn the authorized representatives of the Council of Lithuania into the chairmen of the commissions subordinate to them and the continuous opposition of the Presidium of the Council of Lithuania to the plans of the German government.

청일전쟁 이후 ‘청국차관’(淸國借款) 상환 안건 연구

This paper examines the issue of repayment of Chinese loans to Chosun Dynasty and its meaning.<BR> Firstly, I review at three loans provided by Qing Dynasty to Chosun Dynasty: The loan of China Merchants Steam Navigation Company(CMC), The loan of Imperial Chinese Telegraph Administration (ITA), The loan of Tong Shun Tai.<BR> Secondly, I analyse the process of solving the issue of Ma Ting-liang, Consul General of Late Qing Dynasty in Korea. Even after the Sino-Japanese war, this issue could not be solved, but came to a new phase when he was dispatched to Korea. At that time, the Japanese Resident-General was promoting the Korean government

Lietuvos Respublikos generalinis konsulatas Vilniuje (1939 m. rugsėjis–spalis): veikla, darbuotojai ir jų likimai

Based on archival and historiographic material, the article offers an insight into the activities of the diplomatic institution of Lithuania in Vilnius in September-October of 1939 and the reactions of the citizens towards the establishment of such institution. The author also dwells on the candidates to become the Consul General and fates of the employees of the institution. The Consulate General in Vilnius was opened in line with the bilateral Lithuanian-Polish agreements with regard to the opening of consulates. Due to changes in the political circumstances (loss of Klaipėda region), the establishment of the Consulate in Vilnius was delayed. The first steps in this direction were made already in the summer of 1939. On 22 August 1939, by the decree of the President of the Republic of Lithuania, Dr Antanas Trimakas was appointed the Consul General and in six days received the exequatur of the President of the Republic of Poland. The Head of the Consulate in Vilnius was a seasoned diplomat. The choice served the purpose as his term in office was politically difficult. Dr Trimakas’ diplomatic experience and personal characteristics helped him in representing Lithuania’s interests. In the first stage of its activities (11/09/1939–18/09/1939) the Consulate was mostly preoccupied with consular functions (visa issuance), whereas in the second stage (19/09/1939–01/11/1939) it was for the most part involved in the advocacy for the rights of Lithuania and its citizens (property protection, interventions with regard to Vilnius citizens, provision of information). The Consulate General of the Republic of Lithuania was a rather small institution which at first employed two and later three people. All of them later became victims of forced migration – the Consul General emigrated to the West, whereas his secretary V. Čečeta was imprisoned by the Soviet authorities and later deported to Kazakhstan. He returned to Lithuania 38 years later. Former employee of the Consulate B. Verkelytė-Federavičienė moved to Kaunas in 1940, started a family there and later worked in cultural and academic institutions.

Emigration of Jews from Odessa to Argentina in the Late 19th - Early 20th century

The article deals with the history of emigration of Jews from the south of Ukraine to Argentina in the late 19th - early 20th century and the role of Odessa in the organizational, economic and educational support of the resettlement process. An analysis of the transformation of the idea of ​​the Argentine project from the beginning of compact settlements to the possibility of creating a Jewish state in Patagonia is given. There are provided such aspects as reasons, preconditions and motives of emigration, its stages and results, the exceptional contribution of the businessman and philanthropist Maurice de Hirsch to the foundation of Jewish settlements in Argentina. There are reflected a legislative aspect, in particular, the first attempt of Russian government to regulate migration abroad with the Regulations for activity in Russia of the Jewish Colonization Association founded in Great Britain; various forms and directions of the work of Odessa JCA committee; the activities of the Argentine Vice-Consulate (1906-1909) and the Consul General of Argentina in Odessa (1909-1917). There are also presented some valuable archival genealogical documents from the State Archives of the Odessa Region, namely the lists of immigrants on the steamer "Bosfor" in April 30, 1894. The article highlights the conditions in which the emigrants started their activities in Argentina in 1888, establishment of the first Jewish colony of Moisesville, the difficulties in economic arrangement and social adaptation, and the process of settlement development from the first unsuccessful attempts to cultivate virgin lands to the numerous farms and ranches with effective economic activities. An interesting social phenomenon of interethnic diffusion of indigenous and jewish cultures and the formation of a unique "Gaucho Jews" group of population is covered. It is provided information on the current state of Jewish settlements in Argentina and fixing their history in literature, music, cinema, documentary. It is emphasized that using historical research and direct contacts with the descendants of emigrants to Argentina could be very useful and actual for increasing the efficiency and development of Ukrainian-Argentine economic and cultural ties