Constructions Of Rurality Research Articles

The village in the mind: Applying Q-methodology to re-constructing constructions of rurality

In recent years rural studies have focused on the analysis of different notions of ‘the rural’ and how they are constructed in expert discourses as well as in everyday life. Dealing empirically with such patterns of meaning, poses special challenges to social science. In this article I want to explore Q-methodology that approaches subjectivity in a particular way. Instead of beginning with the individual – as it is done in case study approaches – or with socio-demographic categories – as surveys usually do – Q-methodology attempts to put the focus of inquiry on the content of subjectivity itself, i.e. the integral views and their internal frame of reference. Q-methodology can be conceived as a hybrid of qualitative and quantitative methodology since it combines mathematical procedures like factor analysis with a genuine constructivist and interpretative approach to ‘reality’. An example of a study in which Q-methodology was applied is presented. The aim of this analysis was to explore the different views of village development and community life that existed in a municipality of the exurban hinterland of Hamburg. As a result of this study three distinct perceptions of rurality are identified: an idyllic, a reform-oriented and an anti-conservationist view. Based on a structured comparison of these three views it is shown how Q-methodology can contribute new perspectives and insights to the debate about social representations of rurality.

Visiting a Farm: An Exploratory Study of the Social Construction of Animal Farming in Norway and the Netherlands based on Sensory Perception

Most citizens in modern societies have little personal knowledge or experience of animal farming. This study explores the social construction of animal farming by studying how citizens perceive and evaluate modern farming after visiting a farm in real life. We wanted to understand how (non-farming) citizens develop an opinion of modern dairy farming when experiencing dairy farming in real life and practice, and how they translate what they see, smell and feel into an evaluative perception and mental image. We therefore conducted dairy farm visits with citizen panels in Norway and the Netherlands and asked the panel members to register what they saw, heard, smelled and felt and what they appreciated (or not) on the farm. The aspects that respondents registered could be grouped into four themes: the animals and their products, the rural landscape, farm practices and the farmer. When respondents described their experiences of these aspects on a specific farm, they appeared to look at them from three angles: modernity, tradition and naturality. Most respondents wanted farms to be modern, traditional as well as natural, but they were ready to negotiate and to accept compromises. Many respondents considered the farmer to be responsible for reconciling modernity, tradition and naturality. By taking different topics and issues into account and looking at animal farms from multiple angles, the respondents’ developed a balanced and nuanced opinion of animal farming. The image that they constructed was not dualistic (arcadia versus factory) but pluralistic, thus at the same time more complex but also more flexible than expected. We expect that the development of a pluralistic image and balanced opinion was facilitated through the direct experience of dairy farming and farm life. The article starts with a theoretical analysis and aims to contribute to recent debates in rural sociology in two ways: 1) it studies how material experience and mental perception interact in the construction of an evaluative image of animal farming; and 2) it explores the social construction of animal farming as embedded into to the construction of nature, rurality and human-animal relationships. It concludes by discussing the contribution of the findings to the ongoing theoretical debate in this field.

Teachers and the emotional dimensions of class in resource‐affected rural Australia

In recent years, a ‘cultural turn’ in the study of class has resulted in a rich body of work detailing the ways in which class advantage and disadvantage are emotionally inscribed and embodied in educational settings. To date, however, much of this literature has focused on the urban sphere. In order to address this gap in the literature, this paper focuses on the affective evaluations made by teachers employed in rural and remote Australian schools of students’ families, bodies, expectations and practices. The central argument is that moral ascriptions of class by the teachers are powerfully shaped by dominant socio‐cultural constructions of rurality that equate ‘the rural’ with agriculture.

Conceptualizing Multifunctionality in the Irish Policy Context—Issues for Policy Formulation, Implementation and Evaluation

This paper explores the origin, contextualization and the various interpretations of the concept of multifunctionality with specific reference to agricultural and rural policy development in Ireland. The literature indicates that there are a multiplicity of interpretations of the term itself which are used to support specific perspectives, ranging from agricultural protectionism to its conceptualization as a vehicle for a more sustainable agriculture and rural development. It is argued that, in Ireland, a rural development construct similar to one of the current interpretations of multifunctionality has existed since the 1960s, but its subsequent development has been impeded by the adjustments necessary to conform to mainstream EU agricultural policies. While aspects of multifunctional agriculture have emerged in Ireland in recent years (environmental quality, pluriactivity, agri-tourism, forestry and artisanal food production), public policy has had a mixed impact on their evolution and development. Ambivalence remains in agricultural and rural policy which simultaneously exhorts farmers to meet the growing demands from society for the “non-productive” functions of agriculture while also advocating measures to improve competitiveness in a more globalized market. Notwithstanding the ideological primacy and electoral importance attributed to the small farm sector in Ireland, it is the competitiveness agenda which has gained most from policy reforms to date. The fragmented and intermittent nature of policy support directed at a sub-set of multifunctional activities suggests they are viewed as a ‘palliative’—i.e. a means by which less-competitive producers can survive a hostile market. The shift towards a ‘decoupled’ agricultural support environment will provide added scope for a more comprehensive conceptualization of multifunctionality but will require significant adjustments to existing administrative structures and institutional arrangements.

Beyond ‘Passive Apartheid’? Developing Policy and Research Agendas on Rural Racism in Britain

Although problems facing minority ethnic households in rural areas have been largely overlooked within studies of ‘race’ and racism, an emerging body of research has begun to challenge ‘problem-free’ constructions of the countryside by illustrating the pervasiveness of racialised ‘othering’ in rural environments. In the context of a rapidly expanding minority ethnic rural population, images of the English countryside's ‘white landscape’ will bear increasingly less resonance as the make-up of rural towns and villages continues to diversify over time. This article outlines some of the key challenges facing researchers and policy-makers seeking to address problems of rural racism. It illustrates the manner in which rural minority ethnic households’ vulnerability is exacerbated by the enduring appeal of idyllicised [mis]constructions of rurality and the ineffectiveness of agency responses to racist victimisation, and explores ways of developing sustainable improvements to policy, research and conceptual frameworks in the context of the increasing diversification of rural space.

Native Alaskan engagement with social constructions of rurality

There is no doubt that defining and measuring ‘rurality’ is problematic. In states such as Alaska on the western Pacific coast of the United States, more than two-thirds of the State is classified as ‘remote rural’. In 2000, despite only 10 per cent of the general Alaskan population living in these regions, for more than 41 per cent of Alaskan Natives, these places represent their traditional homelands. These areas generically referred to as the ‘Alaskan bush’ are considered remote, isolated and distant by not only the rest of mainland United States, but also, by most urban Alaskans. Labelling these places thus, continues to reinforce and sustain the much recognised ‘rural–urban divide’ and in turn, influences top-down policy decisions which in Alaska tend to stereotype and pigeonhole regional development, rather than recognise reinterpretations of it. This paper therefore, considers how rurality is defined and measured in and by the State of Alaska and more broadly by the United States government. It questions whether these definitions are adequate descriptions of the realities on the ground and whether such labelling hinders growth, and economic and cultural survival. It also suggests that current interpretations of rurality need to be reconceptualised.

Producing Postman Pat: The popular cultural construction of idyllic rurality

This paper concerns the popular cultural representation of English rurality. It focuses upon Postman Pat, a popular cultural phenomenon which has come to be routinely cited as exemplary and iconic of contemporary imaginings of the English countryside as idyllic. The idea that Anglocentric popular culture (re)produces this sort of ‘rural idyll’ – and that these idylls are particularly laden with cultural and ideological baggage – has been well rehearsed. However, this paper considers a question which has too often been overlooked or taken for granted: how, exactly – and I mean literally, actually, in detail, in practice – does this sort of idyllic rurality come to be constructed? Through conversations with two key figures in the creation of Postman Pat, the paper begins to develop an understanding of some of the everyday, banal, nitty gritty practices, decisions and encounters which must be understood as fundamentally part of the production of (this) ‘rural idyll’.

Constructing ruralities: The case of the Hobbitstee, Netherlands

Rural intentional communities withdraw from mainstream urban space, rejecting its materialism and consumption. In creating their own places in the countryside, they produce new spaces of rurality. Constructions of rurality by intentional communities can be perceived as ‘out of place’ by local populations. This article draws on a wider study on the life-course of intentional communities, i.e. processes of growth, persistence, transformation, decline, and disintegration. We focus on ruralities as social constructions, by discussing the example of the community of the Hobbitstee in its relation with its rural surroundings in the Netherlands. This is done through an analysis of the life course of the Hobbitstee since its establishment in 1969 onwards. The results show that relations between locals and community members are characterised by diversity and multiplicity. In general, their constructions of rurality gradually and partly developed from conflicting to converging.

Strategic spatial planning and contested ruralities: Insights from the republic of Ireland

Since the publication of the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP), a growing body of literature has emerged related to European spatial planning. Much of this literature is focused on the influence of the ESDP on city regions and urban policy in individual member states. Much less attention has been paid thus far to the influence of the ESDP on the formulation of spatial strategies and plans for rural areas. Within this context, this paper aims to explore the formulation of a national framework for spatial development in the Republic of Ireland, and in particular to examine the expression given to rural development and planning issues. This paper reviews the extent that the Irish National Spatial Strategy can provide a basis for a spatially defined (rather than sectoral based) rural policy by examining the policy construction of rurality and how this will impact on three aspects of rural planning policy: the conceptualization of the urban–rural relationship; managing rural settlements; and rural development. The paper concludes by developing wider lessons from the Irish example in the application of the European Union discourse of spatial planning to rural regions, and the difficulties associated with developing and implementing spatial policies in a deeply contested rural arena.

Unraveling the Voices and Identity of Farm Women

In this qualitative study I explored how rural farm women construct, negotiate, and perform gender identity in their everyday lives. To understand this process, 22 farm women located on family farms in Southwestern Ontario were interviewed. Differences were found between those women who were raised and socialized on farms and women who were born in the city. Women who worked off-farm had another experience when they returned to the farm from their workplace. Collectively the women took on the farmwork that was expected of them. They learned to adjust to the lifestyle and ways of farming. The ideology of agrarianism and separate spheres helped to delineate ways of being and doing that maintained their strong yet traditional and submissive sense of self.

‘Lesbian migrants in the gentrified valley’ and ‘other’ geographies of rural gentrification

This paper explores the migration and cultural consumption practices of lesbian households within processes of rural change. Taking forward Phillips’ (2004. Progress in Human Geography 28, 5–30) discussion of neglected geographies of rural gentrification, and building upon Halfacree's (2001. International Journal of Population Geography 7, 395–411) critique of dominant conceptualisations of rural in-migrants, the paper presents empirical findings from a qualitative study of lesbian households in Hebden Bridge, West Yorkshire. This follows up an earlier study of rural gentrification (Smith and Phillips, 2001. Journal of Rural Studies 19, 457–469). Lesbian households are shown to be a significant group that socially and culturally (re)produce distinct constructions of rurality, and act as gentrifiers via their migration, residential, and consumption practices. Many parallels to the migration processes of non-lesbian gentrifiers in Hebden Bridge are revealed, with the alternative cultural structures of Hebden Bridge being a key factor. We therefore argue that lesbian households should not be ‘othered’ within discourses of rural gentrification. The discussion emphasises the value of focussing upon neglected socio-cultural groups in robust ways, in order to shed light on the wider lifestyles and experiences of diverse rural populations, and to deepen understandings of other geographies of rural gentrification.

Women's fear of crime: A rural perspective

This paper examines women's experience of fear of crime in rural areas. It argues that much existing research on issues of gender, fear and safety have focused on urban areas and that as a result we know relatively little about women's experience of fear in a rural context. As well as arguing that we need to redress the balance and respond to the dearth of knowledge about rural women's fear, the paper asserts the importance of a rural perspective in understanding the relationship between fear and the social and cultural construction of place. The rural in particular provides an important site for such an understanding since, as is argued here, the notion of safety is central to constructions of rurality. The paper presents data on rural women's experience of fear and crime from research carried out in New Zealand and the UK. It draws on work undertaken in four rural communities and begins to identify the extent and nature of women's fears and how these relate to their experience of rurality. The paper shows how while popular constructions of the rural as friendly, safe and largely crime free endure, there is a recognition amongst rural women of the growing problems surrounding personal safety. It also demonstrates the importance of social constructions of the rural community in identifying the relevance of the ‘stranger’ and the marginalised ‘other’ to women's feelings of fear.

Uma aproximação semântica aos conceitos de urbano, rural e cooperativa

No planejamento de políticas públicas vinculadas ao desenvolvimento rural, a definição de alguns conceitos, como os de ambiente rural, urbano e cooperativa são sumamente importantes. Considerando que a Psicologia pouco contribuiu no desenvolvimento rural, objetivou-se conhecer os significados que são socialmente atribuídos aos conceitos de rural, urbano e cooperativa. Através da participação de 318 estudantes do ensino médio, do estado da Paraíba (Brasil), pôde-se verificar que o rural é entendido como essencialmente rurícola; o ambiente urbano, por outro lado, é concebido como oposto ao rural e o conceito de cooperativa, tem uma significação eminentemente positiva, que engloba palavras como ajuda e união. Destaca-se a necessidade de se refletir criticamente acerca das políticas para o desenvolvimento rural e de pesquisas na área que contribuam para aclarar questões relacionadas ao desenvolvimento de propostas que contemplem o rural na sua totalidade, proporcionando rever conceitos e avaliar práticas de ações governamentais.

Understanding the use of rural space: the need for multi-methods

Although the late 1990s saw increasing use of qualitative data in rural studies and a turn towards issues such as identities and the construction of rurality, many rural researchers still rely on a range of different methods and use both qualitative and quantitative data. However, the challenge of combining quantitative and qualitative data and using different methods is a theme not often dealt with in rural studies, at least not explicitly. This paper (re-)turns the attention to implications of using various methods and combining different types of data for studying a subject matter called ‘the use of rural space’. It concerns both physical land use and the practice and values of individual actors influencing the land use. We emphasise interplay between methodology and philosophy throughout the research process and argue for using multi-methods without compromising the integrity of the different methods. The methodological approach is a combined study of practice and values of individual actors. Two examples—one concerning Senegalese pastoralists’ livelihoods and their use of mobility and one concerning landowners’ location of field afforestation in Denmark—illustrate how the approach facilitates quite different studies of both practice and values and how quantitative and qualitative data can be combined in a non-eclectic way.

Outsiders in Rural Society? Constructions of Rurality and Nature—Society Relations in the Racialisation of English Gypsy-Travellers, 1869 – 1934

In this paper I explore what Little (1999 Progress in Human Geography23 page 438) terms “the complexity and fluidity of rural otherness” through an examination of the racialisation of Gypsy-Travellers in late-19th-century and early-20th century England. Drawing on social-constructionist and psychoanalytic accounts of difference, I explore both the specificity of racialisation in different places, and the ways in which processes of racialisation can produce highly spatialised understandings of difference. In so doing, I consider the importance of nature – society relations in the othering of this minority group, and the contested construction of their place in the rural idyll.

Cultura, políticas de desarrollo y turismo rural en el ámbito de la globalización<a name=vnota></a>

En este texto analizamos las nuevas directrices del denominado turismo rural en España. Analizamos la importancia de este sector en relación a las nuevas directrices de la globalización, insertando este fenómeno dentro de un proceso mayor de remodelación del mundo rural, diseñado desde Europa y regulado por la Política Agraria Común (PAC) que, en esencia, persigue un nuevo diseño de ruralidad no basada exclusivamente en la producción agraria, sino en la diversificación de actividades económicas. En este contexto el apoyo a las pequeñas industrias tradicionales, el refuerzo del consumo de la tradición, de la naturaleza, ampliamente financiados por diversos Programas Europeos, conforman lo que denominaremos la construcción de la ruralidad, que, en primera instancia se ha esforzado por la creación de un producto rural que tiende a dibujar las nuevas directrices de un consumo diferencial y alimenta la creciente oferta del denominado turismo cultural. Tras realizar un panorama de esta situación en Andalucía, se ofrece el análisis de dos casos empíricos con una consolidada oferta de desarrollo basado en la potencialidad turística de sus productos locales.

Peripheral Visions? A Cross-cultural Study of Rural Youths' Views on Migration

This study sets out to investigate anticipatory views concerning out-migration amongst rural youth. Utilising three age-group samples from rural Norway, Scotland and Sweden, young people were classified as prospective 'stayers', 'leavers' or 'returners'. Both qualitative and quantitative data show that 'stayers' see themselves as most contented with rurality. 'Leavers' are most negative to rural living. 'Returners', though also critical about rural living, are highly positive towards social relations in their communities. Furthermore, national and gender differences are evident. These varying adolescent constructions of rurality are discussed in relation to possible national policies.

Masculinity and rurality at play in stories about hunting

The hunting arena is beginning to captivate new groups of people, and the main focus of this article is rural men's gendered practices and actions in meeting the 'new' hunters. Important issues are how rural hunters construct themselves as men in relation to a modern hunting culture and which gendered and spatial opinions are incorporated into rural men's stories about hunting. Two processes that may challenge the current understanding of traditional rural masculinity are seen as particularly interesting: one is the local hunter's view on the development of commercial hunting, and the other is the local hunter's view on local 'girls' (women) entering the hunting arena. This article argues that gender and rurality must be understood as relational phenomena that are constructed through action and interaction, and that gendered practices are directly involved in social practices, at the same time as social practices both shape and change our understanding of gender. The storylines of hunting are highlighted by focusing on discursive practices of inclusion and exclusion. The article concludes that 'masculinity' and 'rurality' are tightly connected in the sense that they are both constructed in relation to 'urbanity'. In the face of urbanity, the traditional rural masculinity is reinforced in some respects, while in other respects it is opened to redefinition, such as in the meeting with the female hunters. The background material for the article includes interviews with young male hunters who have been raised in and are residents of a county in Mid-Norway.

Children's understandings of rurality: exploring the interrelationship between experience and understanding

Prompted by current debates within rural studies, this paper explores children's understandings of rural New Zealand. Previous research has focused on children as “doers” rather than “thinkers”. This paper reverses this emphasis by exploring children's material and discursive experiences and the ways these are negotiated to develop their understandings of rurality. While it highlights common constructions of rurality based on experiences of agriculture, nature, and recreation, it also illustrates children's varied experiences and understandings of rurality from each other and from adults. This heterogeneity becomes apparent through the examination of individual children's biographies. These reinforce the importance of making room to consider children individually and with regard to their own personal context—that is, to enable the complication of academic/adult understandings of rurality.

Amongst Women: Exploring the Reality of Rural Childcare

In this paper we examine the provision and use of rural childcare, drawing on original data collected as part of a study of formal and informal childcare services in the County of Devon in England. The paper goes beyond existing discussions of childcare in rural areas in attempting to place patterns of use in the broader context of household gender relations and the cultural construction of rurality. We argue that decisions around child care by rural families need to be considered in relation not only to the availability of different sorts of service but also to the employment aspirations and choices of men and women and the assumptions of the primacy of women’s mothering role. Such issues are underpinned, we contest, by idyllic constructions of rural family life and social relations.