Constant Load Conditions Research Articles

Process Integration and Optimization of the Integrated Energy System Based on Coupled and Complementary “Solar-Thermal Power-Heat Storage”

Within the context of “peak carbon and carbon neutrality”, reducing carbon emissions from coal-fired power plants and increasing the proportion of renewable energy in electricity generation have become critical issues in the transition to renewable energy. Based on the principles of cascaded energy utilization, this paper improves the coupling methodology of an integrated solar thermal and coal-fired power generation system based on existing research. A parabolic trough collector field and a three-tank molten salt thermal energy storage system are connected in series and then in parallel with the outlet of the reheater. ASPEN PLUS V14 and MATLAB R2018b software were used to simulate a steady-state model and numerical model, respectively, so as to study the feasibility of the improved complementary framework in enhancing the peak load capacity of coal-fired units and reducing their carbon emissions. Actual solar radiation data from a specific location in Inner Mongolia were gathered to train a neural network predictive model. Then, the peak-shaving performance of the complementary system in matching load demands under varying hours of thermal energy storage was simulated. The findings demonstrate that, under constant boiler load conditions, optimizing the complementary system with a thermal energy storage duration of 5 h and 50 min results in an energy utilization efficiency of 88.82%, accompanied by a daily reduction in coal consumption by 36.49 tonnes. This indicates that when operated under the improved coupling framework with optimal parameters, the peak regulation capabilities of coal-fired power units can be improved and carbon emission can be reduced.

Investigation on the influence of rotational speed on oil film stability of hydrostatic rotary table

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of rotational speed on the oil film stability of the hydrostatic rotary table having double rectangular oil pads. The oil film stability is evaluated based on the oil film stiffness under constant load condition and the displacement response amplitude of the oil film under disturbance load condition.Design/methodology/approachThe oil film stability theoretical equations of the double rectangular oil cavity are deduced such as oil film stiffness, damping and dynamic equations. A simulation model is developed to analyze the relationship among oil film temperature, oil film pressure fields and oil film stability. The user-defined function programs are used to control the rotational speed, lubricant viscosity and oil film thickness during the simulation. In addition, an experimental rig is built to test the simulation results.FindingsThis study shows that oil film stability decreases with increasing rotational speed under constant load and disturbance load. The trend of oil film stability decreased slowly within 30 r/min, and then rapidly. However, since the hydrodynamic pressure effect, the decrease rate of stability is mitigated under constant load and high rotational speeds.Originality/valueThe conclusions can provide a theoretical basis for improving the oil film stability of machines with similar hydrostatic support structure.Peer reviewThe peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/ILT-07-2024-0267/

A Study on Performance of Al-Si alloy Bearing with SAE20W40 as Lubricants in Constant Load and Varying Speed Condition

Abstract: Bearing is used to carry radial loads of transmitting members in motion is called as journal bearing. Journal bearings are considered as essential components of all the rotating machinery. Various researchers carried out analysis particularly on copper based alloys published information related to Aluminium-Silicon alloy as a bearing material and relevant information are not available. So in the present work it has been selected to carry out the study on performance of the Aluminium-Silicon alloy bearing by considering the SAE20W40 grade lubricating oils as lubricating mediums and study has been carried out to find out the maximum pressure distribution by using a journal bearing test rig. The Al-Si alloy as test bearing and test lubricating oils SAE20W40 is run at different loads and speeds either by constant load and varying speed conditions (Example; 150N, 300rpm). It is made to run for 1hour to take maximum pressure value at angular rotation of 180̊. Sensor mounted on the bellow of the housing which gives the pressure readings and the data are transferred to the WINDOWS DUCOM 2010 software, extract condition of the bearings and gives the pressure distribution graphs as shown outcomes. In the results found by the graphs at all operating conditions of constant load and varying speed. The maximum pressure distribution of SAE20W40 grade oil is 1744kPa at 500 rpm. It can be conclude that the load carrying capacity and frictional force which acts on the journal and bearing material is safer, where frictional force decrease when speed increases.

Characterization of Dolomite Stone Broken Under Axial Impact

As the extraction of oil and gas progresses into deeper and ultra-deep geological formations, the enhancement of rock-breaking efficiency in drill bits has emerged as a critical factor in ensuring energy security. Among the various techniques employed, vibratory percussion drilling technology is widely recognized for its ability to improve both the efficiency and speed of penetrating hard rock formations. This study examined the effects of varying loading conditions on the characteristics of rock fracture and damage, maintaining a constant cutting speed and lead angle. By designing a small polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) drill bit and incorporating simulation results, the research sought to analyze the influence of axial impact components on the efficiency of breaking dolomite samples, as well as the effects of impact frequency and amplitude on drilling pressure and rock-breaking energy. The findings revealed that an increase in the axial impact amplitude significantly enhanced rock-breaking efficiency, elevated von Mises stress, and increased principal compressive stress. An increase in impact frequency effectively reduced the overall stress and frictional work. These results underscored that the stress analysis revealed that the peak stress increased at lower impact amplitudes, with notable changes occurring at an amplitude of 1.5, leading to a 100% increase in Mises peak stress compared with an amplitude of 1.0. Axial impact drilling promoted deep crack formation and the development of a tensile damage zone beneath the cutter, indicating its effective rock-breaking capabilities. Axial impact drilling significantly reduced the threshold drilling pressure compared with conventional rotation, with an impact amplitude of 0.3 mm decreasing the static load by 44.1%. Additionally, increasing the axial impact amplitude enhanced the rate of penetration (ROP) while maintaining a constant static load, resulting in remarkable efficiency improvements. The results of the study are expected to provide theoretical guidance for the mechanism of impact rock breaking and the design of impact rock-breaking tool parameters.

INVESTIGASI LAJU REGANGAN CREEP BAJA TAHAN KARAT FERRITIC PADA TEMPERATUR 570 °C

The probabilistic assessment of failure due to the creep phenomenon must be determined with the minimum deviation. Since the creep failure took years before rupture, laboratory experiments were conducted to represent the failure time. However, the laboratory results are only an empirical approach; therefore, the probabilistic assessment can be deviated. A huge number of variables in creep experiments must be conducted to minimize the deviation. This study investigated the creep strain rate for the 9Cr-1Mo ferritic stainless steel. The lever-arm creep machine was used for the creep rupture test, and the test followed the standard of ASTM E139. The constant loads were applied in the range of 250 – 170 MPa with the homologous temperature of 570 °C. The curve of strain to time was recorded from each constant load condition. The creep strain rate was then calculated and presented in the curve of the creep strain rate to the applied load. The linear regression was drawn from the curve by applying Norton’s equation. By obtaining the creep strain hardening coefficient and exponent, an initial probabilistic assessment of creep failure at a temperature of 570 °C can be predicted.

The effect of displacement loading rate on dynamic mechanical characteristics of fault stick-slip under constant normal stiffness conditions

The role of the displacement loading rate in fault activation and evolution is of utmost importance, yet most existing studies have primarily focused on its effect under constant normal load (CNL) conditions. However, in reality, the rock mass surrounding the earthquake source at the deep part of the fault provides normal stiffness conditions. Therefore, the influence of the displacement loading rate on the dynamic mechanical characteristics of fault stick-slip under constant normal stiffness (CNS) conditions remains uncertain. To bridge this research gap, we conduct an experimental investigation on simulated faults in granite under CNS conditions. Our analysis focus on the influence of the displacement loading rate on the spatial and temporal evolution of local stresses along the fault and the size of the fault nucleation zone. The findings reveal the following. Under the CNS condition, the equivalent shear stress is larger compared with the CNL condition, whereas the shear stress drop is smaller. The recovery of normal stress under CNS conditions depends more on the displacement loading rate. The nucleation location of the fault is influenced by the normal boundary conditions, with a larger nucleation zone observed in the CNS condition than in the CNL condition. In the early stage of friction, the local stress and stress drop of the fault exhibit a positive correlation with the displacement loading rate, whereas in the later stage, they display a negative correlation. Moreover, at the same location, the order of local stress drop rates for the fault is [Formula: see text] > [Formula: see text] > [Formula: see text], where [Formula: see text] represents the local normal stress drop rate, [Formula: see text] represents the local shear stress drop rate, and [Formula: see text] represents the local friction coefficient drop rate. These research results contribute to a further understanding of the deep fault-slip mechanical behavior.

Shape function method of Tikhonov regularization for vertical bending moment identification based on parameter updating

To accurate identifying vertical bending moment and structural parameters for hull structure, a simultaneous identification technique combined with shape function method (SFM) and sensitivity method was developed. The shape function construction incorporated Tikhonov regularization to enhance the stability of SFM (SFM_Tikhonov). Numerical and experimental studies were conducted. Numerical results showed the effectiveness of SFM_Tikhonov. It achieved a reduction of over 30% in both root mean square error (RMSE) and mean absolute error (MAE) compared to SFM of moving least square fitting (SFM_MLSF). The simultaneous identification method effectively improves the accuracy of moment identification in scenarios of wrong initial parameter estimates. Experimental results show that under constant load condition, the performance of the load identification module based on SFM_Tikhonov lags behind numerical examples, although its parameter update module is unaffected. However, the proposed method remains showing its potential for advancing load identification in structural health monitoring systems.

Vibration properties of full ceramic bearing under elastohydrodynamic fluid lubrication based on the energy approach

As an important part of rotating machinery, heat generation due to friction is inevitable during the rotating process of bearings. A large amount of heat causes the temperature of lubricating oil to increase, viscosity of lubricating oil to decrease, and lubricating performance decreases. Addressing the issue of inadequate lubrication between the rolling element and raceway due to increased lubricating oil temperature, this study focuses on full-ceramic ball bearings. It examines the impact of temperature fluctuations on the bearing's lubrication condition and investigates the vibration characteristics of the full-ceramic bearing. The variation in the viscosity of lubricating oil with respect to temperature is measured via a rotary viscometer. A dynamic model of the silicon nitride full-ceramic ball bearing, which considers the effects of elastohydrodynamic lubrication, is established. The impacts of changes in lubricating oil viscosity due to different temperatures on oil film pressure, oil film thickness, and bearing vibration are analyzed and then compared with experimental data. It is observed that under conditions of constant load and speed, the film thickness of the lubricating oil decreases as the viscosity decreases. Additionally, the second peak value of oil film pressure is reduced with the declining viscosity of the lubricating oil. As the viscosity decreases, the vibration of the bearing increases. The amplitude discrepancy between the simulated vibration signal and experimental vibration signal of the full-ceramic bearing is found to be less than 10 %, verifying the validity of the dynamic model.

Environmentally Friendly MoS2-hBN Solid Lubricants: A Comprehensive Tribological Evaluation

Abstract MoS2-based solid lubricants have obtained significant attention and are extensively employed in the aerospace industry due to their desirable tribological performance. However, to enhance their performance in humid environments, MoS2 is often doped with Pb-based compounds. Considering the health and environmental concerns associated with Pb, it is necessary to develop eco-friendly alternatives. In this study, hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) has been used as a potential substitute for Pb-based dopants in MoS2-based solid lubricants and coatings with varying hBN contents (9.5, 11.5, 13.5, 15.5, and 17.5 wt%) were applied to stainless-steel substrates using a spray bonding technique. The friction and wear characteristics of the coatings were analyzed by using a ball-on-flat tribometer, employing constant load conditions. Subsequently, ex situ analysis techniques such as scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy were used to characterize the coatings. The results showed that the coating with a lower hBN concentration presented improved tribological properties, which was correlated with the development of an effective MoS2-based transfer/tribo-film. This suggests that optimizing hBN content is crucial for enhancing the lubrication performance.

Embryo movement is required for limb tendon maturation.

Following early cell specification and tenocyte differentiation at the sites of future tendons, very little is known about how tendon maturation into robust load-bearing tissue is regulated. Between embryonic day (E)16 and E18 in the chick, there is a rapid change in mechanical properties which is dependent on normal embryo movement. However, the tissue, cellular and molecular changes that contribute to this transition are not well defined. Here we profiled aspects of late tendon development (collagen fibre alignment, cell organisation and Yap pathway activity), describing changes that coincide with tissue maturation. We compared effects of rigid (constant static loading) and flaccid (no loading) immobilisation to gain insight into developmental steps influenced by mechanical cues. We show that YAP signalling is active and responsive to movement in late tendon. Collagen fibre alignment increased over time and under static loading. Cells organise into end-to-end stacked columns with increased distance between adjacent columns, where collagen fibres are deposited; this organisation was lost following both types of immobilisation. We conclude that specific aspects of tendon maturation require controlled levels of dynamic muscle-generated stimulation. Such a developmental approach to understanding how tendons are constructed will inform future work to engineer improved tensile load-bearing tissues.

Effect of Constant Cyclic Stress Coupling on the Fatigue Behavior of 304LN Stainless Steel.

The stress state of the primary circuit main pipeline is very complex mixed constant stress and periodic cyclic stress during the operation of nuclear power plants, which often affects the failure behavior of the stainless steel (SS) pipe. The fatigue behavior of 304LN SS under mixed constant stress and cyclic stress was investigated, and it was found that the coupling effect of constant stress and cyclic stress has a significant collaborative acceleration on the fatigue behavior. The research results showed that the cracks in the 304LN SS did not propagate even after 78 days under both constant load conditions of 5 KN and 7.5 KN, while the crack growth rate (CGR) of the specimen increased by about an order of magnitude when coupled with a cyclic fatigue load. The fatigue life of 304LN SS was the longest under 200 °C high-temperature water, and its life was roughly the same under 250 °C and 300 °C water. In a 300 °C high-temperature water environment, the fatigue life under the coupling of constant stress and cyclic fatigue stress is significantly lower than that under symmetric cyclic stress alone. There is a synergistic acceleration effect on the fatigue life of 304LN SS when constant stress is coupled with periodic cyclic stress, which is attributed to the combined effect of a corrosion environment and mechanical factors.

Effect of electrical current on sliding friction and wear mechanisms in a-C and ta-C amorphous Carbon coatings

This study investigated the sliding wear behaviour of amorphous carbon (a-C) and tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C) coatings, two forms of diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings, against SAE 52100 steel using a modified ball-on-disk tribometer with applied electrical currents ranging from 100 mA to 1800 mA. It focused on the variations in sliding friction and wear characteristics of these coatings as electrical currents increased under constant load and speed conditions. The a-C coatings exhibited lower coefficient of friction (COF) values and reduced volumetric wear losses up to 1500 mA, while ta-C coatings studied displayed higher wear, similar to uncoated M2 steel, at 300 mA with degradation occurring at low currents, resulting in failure due to severe oxidational wear. The a-C coatings showed no significant electrical damage at these currents. Raman spectroscopy revealed structural changes on the wear tracks of sp2-rich a-C coatings, specifically the formation of graphene layers. In comparison, the wear tracks of sp3-rich ta-C coatings did not display such transformation under the conditions studied. The graphene coverage on the surfaces of the a-C coatings increased with the increase in the current as revealed by the Raman intensity maps of 2D peaks and this increase was accompanied by a higher defect density in the graphene. The low COF of graphene-covered a-C surfaces was consistent with the proposed mechanisms of moisture adsorption. However, at currents exceeding 900 mA, surface temperatures of a-C coatings exceeded 100 °C, impairing graphene's ability to maintain low friction, resulting in an increased COF.

Topology design of variable speed drive systems for enhancing power quality in industrial grids

In the last two decades, a rapid increase in the utilization of non-linear loads within electrical grids has been observed. Consequently, elevated levels of harmonics are found in both voltage and current waves, and adverse effects on power quality are caused. In this context, the variable speed drive (VSD) systems are considered a significant non-linear contributor. To mitigate the harmonic content in VSD systems, various techniques are explored, such as electronic smoothing inductor incorporation in the DC-link, active filters utilization at the grid side, and passive filters integration. A technique centered on the reconfiguration of the DC-link in the VSD systems is proposed in this paper to improve the overall performance of the VSD systems. The configuration comprises two transistors and two diodes, along with smoothing inductors and a capacitor to enhance power quality in the VSD systems. The utilization of three-stage sine pulse width modulation (SPWM) control technology ensures accurate control of the switches, generating optimal control signals that enhance the power quality of the voltage and current waves at the grid side. The effectiveness of the proposed approach is tested via time-domain simulation in MATLAB/Simulink under both constant and variable loading conditions and is verified using a laboratory prototype. The obtained results demonstrate a notable improvement in power quality, showcasing reduced total harmonic distortion (THD) in AC voltage and current waveforms, as well as minimized ripple factor in the DC-link when compared to existing methods.

Dynamic Optimization and Placement of Renewable Generators and Compensators to Mitigate Electric Vehicle Charging Station Impacts Using the Spotted Hyena Optimization Algorithm

The growing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) offers notable benefits, including reduced maintenance costs, improved performance, and environmental sustainability. However, integrating EVs into radial distribution systems (RDSs) poses challenges related to power losses and voltage stability. The model accounts for hourly variations in demand, making it crucial to determine the optimal placement of electric vehicle charging stations (EVCSs) throughout the day. This study proposes a new approach that combines EVCSs, distribution static compensators (DSTATCOMs), and renewable distributed generation (RDG) from solar and wind sources, with a focus on dynamic analysis over 24 h. The spotted hyena optimization algorithm (SHOA) is employed to determine near-global optimum locations and sizes for RDG, DSTATCOMs, and EVCSs, aiming to minimize real power loss while meeting system constraints. The SHOA outperforms traditional methods due to its unique search mechanism, which effectively balances exploration and exploitation, allowing it to find superior solutions in complex environments. Simulations on an IEEE 34-bus RDS under dynamic load conditions validate the approach, demonstrating a reduction in average power loss from 180.43 kW to 72.04 kW, a 72.6% decrease. Compared to traditional methods under constant load conditions, the SHOA achieves a 77.0% reduction in power loss, while the BESA and PSO achieve reductions of 61.1% and 44.7%, respectively. These results underscore the effectiveness of the SHOA in enhancing system performance and significantly reducing real power loss.

Modeling and Analysis of Resistance-Sensing Characteristics for Two-Way Shape Memory Alloy-Based Deep-Sea Actuators

Deep-sea actuators based on shape memory alloys (SMAs) are an emerging frontier field of multidisciplinary crossover, and the resistive sensing characteristics are the basis for the drive control of SMA deep-sea actuators. The resistance and resistivity of SMAs are complex and highly dependent on temperature and stress, and there is no complete description of SMAs for extreme environments of high pressure, low temperature, and high salinity in the deep sea. In this study, the logistic function is introduced to improve the kinetic equation of phase transition, and the macromechanical model, the law of resistance, and the resistivity mixing rule are integrated to model and analyze the resistive self-awareness characteristics of two-way shape memory alloy deep-sea actuators. The complex coupling relationships among resistance, strain, stress, resistivity, and temperature under constant load conditions are investigated, and the validity of the resistance-sensing model is verified by the water bath cycling test. The results show that the predicted values of the model agree well with the measured values. The self-perceived relationship between the resistance and deformation of the two-way shape memory alloy can be effectively expressed, which provides theoretical model support for the design of memory alloy deep sea actuators and sensorless drive control.

Influences of the normal loading condition and surface texture on interface shear behavior between sand and suction caisson wall

The mechanical behavior of the interface between soil and the suction caisson wall determines the installation behavior and bearing capacity. A series of interfacial shear tests are conducted to study the effects of the normal loading condition and the interface texture on the sand-suction caisson interface shear characteristics. The relative density of the sand used in the test is 0.9. It is found that with the increase of shear displacement, the shear stress-displacement curve under a constant normal load condition (CNL) has an obvious strain-softening trend. On the contrary, the shear stress increases linearly with increasing the shear displacement under a variable normal load condition (VNL). The stress ratio between shear and normal stress, the broken zone thickness, and the shear deformation zone thickness for a convex suction caisson wall-sand interface are significantly larger than those of the grooved interface. However, when the roughness increases to a certain value, the stress ratio between shear and normal stress would decrease. Under large displacement shearing, the degree of sand particle breakage becomes significantly higher than that under small displacement shearing. These results help understand the shear characteristics of the sand-suction caisson wall and invent the new type of the suction caisson.

Investigating the Fatigue Response of Cathodically Charged Cold-Finished Mild Steel to Varied Hydrogen Concentrations

This study investigates the fatigue behavior of cold-finished mild steel subjected to electrochemical hydrogen charging under controlled conditions. Samples were subjected to hydrogen charging at constant time in a fixed electrolyte pH, after which the samples underwent fatigue testing under constant loading condition with fixed frequency. The primary objective was to assess the impact of varying hydrogen permeation levels on the number of cycles to failure. The experimental results revealed a complex relationship between hydrogen concentration and fatigue life. Initially, as hydrogen permeation increased, the number of cycles to failure substantially decreased, demonstrating the detrimental effect of diffused hydrogen on the fatigue resistance of samples. This decline in fatigue life was attributed to hydrogen embrittlement (HE) and hydrogen-enhanced decohesion (HEDE) phenomena, which collectively facilitate crack initiation and propagation. However, at high hydrogen concentrations, an unexpected increase in the number of cycles to failure was observed suggesting the existence of a threshold hydrogen concentration beyond which the fatigue mechanisms may be altered, potentially due to a saturation of hydrogen-related defects and mechanisms such as hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity (HELP). The discovery from this research has significant implications for the material’s application in hydrogen-rich environments, such as those encountered in the energy and transportation industries.

True triaxial shear creep behaviors of sandstone under constant normal load and constant normal stiffness conditions

The long-term stability of rocks is crucial for ensuring safety in deep engineering, where the prolonged influence of shear loading is a key factor in delayed engineering disasters. Despite its significance, research on time-dependent shear failures under true triaxial stress to reflect in situ stress conditions remains limited. This study presents laboratory shear creep measurements on intact sandstone samples under constant normal load (CNL) and constant normal stiffness (CNS) conditions, which are typical of shallow and deep engineering cases, respectively. Our investigation focuses on the effects of various lateral stresses and boundary conditions on the mechanical behaviors and failure modes of the rock samples. Results indicate that lateral stress significantly reduces shear creep deformation and decreases creep rates. Without lateral stress constraints, the samples are prone to lateral tensile fractures leading to macroscopic spalling, likely due to "shear-induced tensile" stress. This failure behavior is mitigated under lateral stress constraints. Additionally, compared to CNL condition, samples under CNS condition demonstrate enhanced long-term shear resistance, reduced shear creep rates, and rougher shear failure surfaces. These findings suggest the need to improve our understanding of rock mass stability and to develop effective disaster prevention and mitigation strategies in engineering applications.

Experimental investigation and computational modelling of 304LN stainless steel under constant and variable strain path multiaxial loading conditions

This study investigates the fatigue behavior of 304LN stainless steel under constant and variable strain path multiaxial loading conditions. Experimental methods and computational modelling were used to analyze the response of the material to different loading scenarios. Experimental investigations were conducted to gather empirical data, which were subsequently validated using a modified Ohno-Wang and Tanaka cyclic plasticity framework. Two models were used for the analysis: the MOT model and a modified model that incorporated a weighted function and fractional functions for hardening and softening. In contrast, the modified model offers significant improvements, accurately capturing primary hardening and secondary softening across all loading scenarios. Furthermore, the modified model effectively simulates transient behavior, including load alteration and recovery effects, due to the integration of load history memory regulating functions. Overall, this study emphasizes the importance of considering the complexities of cyclic loading and the sensitivity of the material behavior to the loading history.

Strain amplitude dependency of cyclic hardening/softening behavior of 490 N/mm2 class steel

Existing studies on the strain amplitude dependency of cyclic softening behavior in structural steels often involve limited cycles or strain amplitudes below 2.5%, failing to provide a comprehensive understanding of stabilized cyclic behavior. This study performed uniaxial tension–compression cyclic loading tests using SN490B structural steel under three loading patterns: constant, variable, and offset constant strain amplitudes. The cyclic hardening and softening behaviors and stress–strain hysteresis loops were compared. Under variable strain amplitude loading, the specimens were subjected to increasing and decreasing strain amplitudes to investigate the strain amplitude dependency of the cyclic hardening and softening behaviors. Under offset constant strain amplitude loading, mean strains were initially introduced in either the tension or compression strain range, followed by cyclic loading with a constant strain amplitude centered around the mean strains. The test results revealed the following: (1) Under constant strain amplitude cyclic loading, the material exhibited cyclic softening and hardening behaviors at strain amplitudes smaller than and larger than 0.5%, respectively; (2) Under variable strain amplitude cyclic loading, increased and reduced strain amplitudes resulted in cyclic hardening and softening behaviors, respectively. The cyclic hardening/softening behavior strongly depended on the strain amplitude. Applying a significant number of cycles after strain amplitude reduction resulted in the stress–strain curves closely resembling those under constant strain amplitude conditions; (3) Even under offset constant strain amplitude cyclic loading conditions with nonzero mean strain, the peak stresses and shapes of the hysteresis loops approached those under constant strain amplitude conditions without mean strain.