Constant Increase Research Articles

Random noise promotes slow heterogeneous synaptic dynamics important for robust working memory computation

Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) based on model neurons that communicate via continuous signals have been widely used to study how cortical neural circuits perform cognitive tasks. Training such networks to perform tasks that require information maintenance over a brief period (i.e., working memory tasks) remains a challenge. Inspired by the robust information maintenance observed in higher cortical areas such as the prefrontal cortex, despite substantial inherent noise, we investigated the effects of random noise on RNNs across different cognitive functions, including working memory. Our findings reveal that random noise not only speeds up training but also enhances the stability and performance of RNNs on working memory tasks. Importantly, this robust working memory performance induced by random noise during training is attributed to an increase in synaptic decay time constants of inhibitory units, resulting in slower decay of stimulus-specific activity critical for memory maintenance. Our study reveals the critical role of noise in shaping neural dynamics and cognitive functions, suggesting that inherent variability may be a fundamental feature driving the specialization of inhibitory neurons to support stable information processing in higher cortical regions.

Modeling and advanced Ground Penetrating Radar techniques for evaluating pipe leakage and pavement distress

This study provides a comprehensive analysis of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) data processing techniques for detecting water leakage in urban pavements. By examining GPR images characterized by continuous and discontinuous high-amplitude reflections, the research identifies clear indicators of water saturation caused by leaking underground pipes. Computer modeling of GPR profiles enables effective comparisons with real data and helps in calibrating key GPR attributes such as energy, amplitude variance, and RMS amplitude. These attributes allow for the precise delineation of leakage zones in both synthetic and real GPR datasets collected in the Amazon region of Brazil. The Reflector Tilt Method (RTM) significantly enhances GPR data analysis, especially for detecting subsurface water leaks. RTM utilizes changes in the relative dielectric constant and electromagnetic wave velocity induced by water saturation in unconsolidated, horizontally stratified sand layers. By analyzing the tilt of reflections in GPR profiles, RTM differentiates between dry and saturated zones, providing insights into the geometry and extent of water infiltration. Notably, this study demonstrates how increased subsurface water saturation causes underlying reflectors to tilt. Using the tilt angle, we propose a novel technique to quantify the increase in the dielectric constant due to water saturation. This technique could also be adapted to detect leaks involving other fluids, as long as there is a strong contrast between the dielectric constant and the background. The integration of RTM improves the creation of accurate three-dimensional models of affected areas, enhancing leak detection and aiding in understanding water movement dynamics within the subsurface. The study underscores the importance of combining GPR attributes with RTM to generate detailed 3D models of leakage zones, which are essential for estimating the volume of infiltrated areas. Observations indicate significant water saturation near leaking pipes at shallow depths, with saturation levels decreasing rapidly as depth increases. By identifying 2D geophysical signatures of water leaks in public distribution networks, the research highlights the effectiveness of non-invasive GPR methods in mitigating risks such as soil erosion and surface collapse. This approach demonstrates the utility of GPR attributes and RTM as essential tools for assessing urban pavement integrity, enabling early detection of leaks and precise mapping of affected zones. The findings contribute significantly to the efficient and sustainable management of urban infrastructure, enhancing maintenance strategies and reducing potential hazards associated with undetected fluid leaks.

Probing Anticancer Molecules from Onion Peels Waste; First Synthesis and Biological Studies of a Rare Quercetin Derivative-pachypodol

Background: The constant increase in global onion production escalates the generation of onion peel waste. For instance, globally, >50 lakh tons of onion waste are generated annually. Methods: Its objectionable odor precludes its use in agriculture or disposal as landfilling presents environmental issues. Previous studies show that two major flavonoids, quercetin and its glycosides (spiraeoside), have been identified in abundance in onion waste. By utilizing the spiraeoside (quercetin-4ʹ-glucoside), a rapid synthesis of pachypodol (quercetin-3,3′,7-trimethyl ether, and a rare flavonol), an essential Ayurvedic product, has been developed and achieved. Pachypodol and analogs were studied for their ability to inhibit matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 (MMP-2 & 9) activity. Amongst the compounds tested, pachypodol significantly inhibited MMP-2 activity. Results: In-silico docking studies suggest that, unlike most known MMP inhibitors, pachypodol interacts selectively with MMP-2 through the residues Ile222, Tyr223, and Thr227 in a zincindependent manner. Conclusion: The experimental studies also prove that pachypodol inhibits the MMP-2 enzyme in a zinc-independent way.

Thermal, Electrical, and Dielectric Properties of xNa2O-(0.4-x)B2O3-0.4SiO2-0.2P2O5 Glassy Systems for Advanced Material Applications

This study investigates the xNa2O–(0.4-x)B2O3–0.4SiO2–0.2P2O5 glassy system (NBSP) with Na2O content ranging from x = 0.10 to 0.25, synthesized using melt-quenching techniques. The effects of varying Na2O concentrations on the glass’s structural, thermal, and electrical properties are systematically analysed. Increasing Na2O content leads to a decrease in glass density. Concurrently, the molar volume increases, reflecting an expansion of the glass network. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) shows the formation of crystallites inside the glass matrix. XRD analysis reveals a decrease in crystallite size and increased microstrain with higher Na2O concentrations. Thermal stability remains relatively stable with a slight decrease in glass transition temperature, making the glasses suitable for high-temperature applications. Electrical conductivity studies show increased conductivity with higher Na2O content. The dielectric loss and dielectric constant increase with temperature but decrease at higher frequencies. Analysis using the Kohlrausch–Williams–Wats model shows that the charge carriers exhibit non-Debye-type relaxation behaviour. Impedance spectroscopy confirms that higher Na2O concentrations enhance ionic conduction with lower bulk resistance. It is suggested that glasses with higher Na2O content, especially x = 0.20 and x = 0.25, are promising for energy storage applications due to their enhanced ionic mobility and favorable electrical properties.

Influencing Factor Analysis and Prediction Model of Emergency Caesarean Delivery for Advanced-Age Nulliparous Women at the Time of Hospitalization

Objective: In Japan, the number of nulliparous pregnant women of advanced age, defined as 35 years or older, has increased, and the age range has lengthened towards older age with the increased use of infertility treatments. Given this trend, adverse labour outcomes, such as emergency caesarean delivery (ECD), are expected to increase. Therefore, by focusing mainly on maternal age and infertility treatment history, we aimed to establish a new prediction model for the likelihood of ECD after identifying the influencing factors related to maternal and labour-related characteristics. Materials and methods: The medical records of 1,521 pregnant women who were nulliparous between 2017/4/1 and 2024/3/31 at our hospital were retrospectively reviewed. First, for the 675 women who were aged 30 years old or more, we calculated the rates of ECD in 8 groups classified according to maternal age, infertility treatment, and other variables. Next, we performed multivariate logistic regression analysis to assess the effect of each representative factor and established a prediction model based on the number of factors that were significant in the multivariate analysis. Results: Simple comparisons classified by maternal age revealed a constant increase in the rate of ECD with increasing maternal age, and multivariate analysis revealed 7 significant factors, namely, advanced maternal age, history of using assisted reproductive techniques (ART), small height, high Body mass index (BMI), low Bishop score, late-term delivery, and large infant. In the prediction model constructed with these 7 factors, the rate of ECD increased as the number of these factors increased. Conclusion: The negative impact of advanced maternal age, namely, 40 years or older, and ART history, on labour outcome is clear. A new prediction model has the potential to identify patients with an extremely high probability of needing an ECD. These results may indicate that the management of the labour process will become more difficult in the future.

Protocols for Postanesthesia Care Unit Handoff and Patient Safety: A Scoping Review.

To map studies that tested an intervention orienting patient transfer to Postanesthesia Care Unit (PACU) and identify outcomes related to care safety. Scoping review guided by recommendations of the JBI Manual and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guide. The Population, Concept, and Context (PCC) framework was used to develop the research question and consolidate inclusion and exclusion criteria in databases consulted without date parameters. The review protocol was registered in the Open Science Framework. The systematic search identified 182 records. After reading their titles and abstracts, 49 studies were read in full. The final sample consisted of 17 texts published between 2013 and 2024. The main elements evaluated in the implementation of interventions to guide patient transfer to the PACU related to patient safety were as follows: increase in the number of transferred information; higher rates of professional satisfaction with teamwork; presence of surgical professionals; questions from the receiver and adequacy to the instrument. Also was identified a pause to monitor the patient before the transfer and reduction of omitting information, interruptions, distractions, task errors, hypoxemia, nausea, vomiting and excessive pain. The variables evaluated after the interventions to promote a structured patient transfer to the PACU have the potential to guide the development of quality assessment indicators and contribute to the promotion of a safety culture in institutions. Considering the constant increase in complexity and demand for perioperative care, the investigation of patient transfer processes to the PACU can provide support for the management of surgical practices and contribute to improving patient safety and the experience of the health professionals involved. No patient or public contribution. OSF registration: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/M2FYN.

Barley Genetic Resources: Advancing Conservation and Applications for Breeding—Series II

The changing climate conditions and the growing world population require a constant increase in agricultural production [...]

Digital Thread-Based Optimisation Framework for Aeronautical Structures: A Vertical Tail Plane Use Case

In this modern era, the constant increase in computational and sensing power has lead to the development of multiple data-driven concepts. Amongst these, the ‘digital thread’ is an architecture that aims at optimising the knowledge of a system by merging prior knowledge of the product with information from multiple stages of its lifecycle in order to improve the performance of new products to be designed, thanks to the increased accuracy of this updated knowledge. Even though the use of these data-driven architectures is becoming increasingly widespread, most of the corresponding developments remain currently limited to the component level. In this respect, this article extends the application of the digital thread from the component level to the structural assembly level and enriches it with additional multi-physics considerations and non-linear failure constraints. To this end, it details the development of a digital thread dedicated to an aircraft vertical tail plane structure made of carbon fibre reinforced polymer, as well as the tools and models required to implement such an approach using Bayesian inference, multi-physics simulations, and empirical models.

Особенности квалификации преступлений, совершаемых в сфере интеллектуальной собственности

In the era of active development of the Russian legal field and its adaptation to the constantly emerging challenges of our time, the issue of increasing the effectiveness of legislative and law enforcement mechanisms in the field of intellectual property protection is becoming very relevant. The regulatory framework of the Russian Federation already includes numerous measures to protect the results of intellectual work; nevertheless, the constant increase in the number of crimes affecting intellectual property rights indicates the urgent need for their further refinement and strengthening. In modern Russia, the field of intellectual property rights protection is often riddled with numerous gaps, which leads to significant economic losses. The study of the issues of qualification of crimes in the field of intellectual property acquires urgent importance due to the requirement to adapt legal norms to intensively evolving technologies and the evolution of the characteristics of criminal activity. The growth of incidents related to the misuse of intellectual property increases annually, which underlines the need for in-depth knowledge and innovative methods in conducting investigative actions by law enforcement agencies. It is critically important to ensure reliable protection of the intellectual property rights of authors and owners, which serves as an incentive for updating and detailing the norms of criminal and civil legislation. Such initiatives contribute not only to the prevention of crimes, but also ensure fair consideration of each specific case with the restoration of violated rights and interests. The purpose of the article is to analyze the legal aspects and problems related to the qualification of crimes in the field of intellectual property, as well as to propose ways to improve the criminal and civil legislation of Russia to improve the protection of copyright and related rights.

Pulmonary embolism in young women: statement of problem in internist’s point of view

the high morbidity and mortality in so-called "provoked" pulmonary embolism (PE) have recently attracted a lot of attention to this problem. In real clinical practice, there is a constant increase in the prevalence of PE, which to some extent is due to the improvement of its detection due to the introduction of modern methods of laboratory diagnostics and imaging, which made it possible to identify a larger number of clinically insignificant emboli of small branches of the pulmonary artery. Young women are more likely to be suspected of PE than age-matched men, and the risk modifiers are somewhat different from those in the male population. Therefore, the purpose of this article was to highlight the gender characteristics of venous thrombosis in general and PE, in particular, in women, with the description of risk factors inherent in the female population, as well as the stratification of PE and the justification of the choice of treatment strategy depending on risk groups and taking into account gender. After an analytical search of recent publications related to venous thromboembolism and PE in both men and women, female risk modifiers were detailed. It is noted that in the case of suspected PE, the pretest probability does not always take into account gender. Given that venous thromboembolism, unlike arterial thrombosis, occurs at a younger age, suspicion of PE in women is sometimes underestimated, and risk modifiers for thromboembolism in women are not always taken into account. Determination of D-dimer and troponin levels remain an important step in the diagnostic search today. The article shows gender differences in the level of troponin as a marker of right ventricular damage. Attention is paid to imaging research methods, in particular spiral computed tomography and its importance in the diagnosis of thromboembolic complications. The attention of specialists and the tactics of treatment selection, which is based on risk assessment and taking into account hemodynamic stability, are drawn.

High-temperature electrical superconductivity of layered nanoscale “heterostructures”

The paper discusses the possibility of realizing a superconducting state at temperatures of ≈102 K in layered nano-sized heterostructures – thin-film objects consisting of alternating layers of metals and semimetals (or semiconductors) with a thickness of (1–102) nm. The numerical estimates show that in such structures, an increase in the electron density in semimetals (semiconductors) leads to a change in the electrical conductivity up to the appearance of superconductivity. If we assume that superconductivity is realized as a result of electron-phonon interaction, causing the formation of Cooper electron pairs (Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer mechanism), then an increase in the electron density in the semiconductor layer of a nano-sized heterostructure should cause an increase in the pairing constant and so-called high-temperature superconductivity can be realized.

SiO2-Filled Polydimethylsiloxane Compositions Functionalized with Carboxy and Thioether Groups

The possibility of application of carboxy- and thioether-containing alkoxysilanes as additives in the formation of elastomeric SiO2-filled polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) compositions cured with zirconium siloxanes has been studied. It is shown that the introduction of these additives into the system ensures an increase in the dielectric constant, provided that the final components are compatible (up to ε' ≥ 4 at f =102 Hz). By varying the composition and initial ratio of the components, it is possible to achieve the desired mechanical characteristics suitable for using the resulting materials as actuators.

Determination of the frequency and influence of senile asthenia syndrome on older patients' treatment results in urgent abdominal surgery

Abstract. Modern demographic data indicate a constant increase in the quantity older people in the general population structure. With age, the body is affected by many factors that lead to senile asthenia syndrome. The study is devoted to the evaluation of the influence of senile asthenia syndrome on older patients' treatment in emergency abdominal surgery for improvement. Materials and methods of the study. Examination and evaluation of the treatment results of 161 (100.0%) patients was based on the Municipal non-commercial enterprise "City Hospital of Emergency and Rapid Medical Care". In the first part of the group, 81 (50.3%) patients were diagnosed with cholelithiasis (CHD) and acute cholecystitis. The second part of the group of 80 (49.7%) patients was diagnosed with perforation of a stomach or duodenal ulcer. All patients were examined and operated urgently. Senile asthenia syndrome was assessed using the Edmonton Freil scale [11]. Markers of senile asthenia were: total protein, albumin, somatotropic hormone and interleukin 6. Results: It was established that hypoproteinemia with a total protein level indicators of 61.35 (55.00; 70.00) g/l, p = 0.0009, U = 1224.0 and dysproteinemia was determined in the main study group. The albumin level in the main group is also significantly reduced - 29.75 (24.70; 35.70) g/l, p = 0.0072, U = 2268.0. The level of somatotropic hormone was considerably lower in the main group 0.89 (0.12, 1.28) mlU/l compared to the comparison group 2.40 (0.33, 3.96) mlU/l, p = 0.0030, U = 2248.5. This indicated the presence of sarcopenia syndrome. The interleukin 6 level in both study groups exceeded the norm. A significant increase in the frequency and mortality of postoperative complications was determined in the group of asthenia patients. Conclusions. The frequency of senile asthenia syndrome was 50.3% among patients in emergency abdominal surgery. The Edmonton Freil scale can be a quick and effective method of diagnosing senile asthenia syndrome in emergency abdominal surgery. _________________________________________________________________________________________ Keywords: senile asthenia; sarcopenia; malnutrition; somatotropic hormone; interleukin 6

Legal aspects of critical infrastructure cybersecurity provision: national and international dimension

The article examines the legal aspects of ensuring cybersecurity of critical infrastructure, which is a fundamental element of national security in the modern world. Critical infrastructure, such as energy systems, transport networks, the banking sector and government institutions, are of particular value and at the same time are the most vulnerable to cyber threats. Given the constant increase in the number and complexity of cyber incidents, ensuring legal regulation of this area is a key challenge for states. The paper analyzes the national legislation of Ukraine, in particular the legislative acts regulating the cybersecurity of critical infrastructure, such as the Law of Ukraine “On the Basic Principles of Ensuring Cybersecurity of Ukraine” and related regulatory legal acts. It examines the extent to which these documents meet modern challenges, including the conditions of martial law, increasing digitalization and globalization of cyber threats. Particular attention is paid to information protection mechanisms and interdepartmental coordination, as well as their effectiveness in practical implementation. The article also considers international experience in the field of cybersecurity, in particular the approaches implemented in the European Union, the USA and other countries. An analysis of key international standards and recommendations, such as NIST, ISO/IEC 27001, and the European NIS2 Directive, is carried out, which are aimed at increasing the resilience of critical infrastructure to cyber threats. It shows how international cooperation and integration into global initiatives, including NATO, OSCE and EU, can contribute to improving cybersecurity at the national level. The results of the study revealed a number of problems that complicate the effective legal regulation of cybersecurity in Ukraine: the lack of a comprehensive approach to cyber risk management, weak integration of international standards into national legislation, limited resources to respond to cyber threats. The paper proposes specific ways to improve legal regulation, including harmonizing national legislation with international norms, developing clear mechanisms for cooperation between government agencies, the private sector and international partners, as well as strengthening the training of cybersecurity specialists. The paper emphasizes the importance of strategic planning in the field of cybersecurity, the formation of long-term state policy and the active involvement of international organizations in the development of this industry. The article may be useful for academics, civil servants, private sector representatives and international experts dealing with cybersecurity, information security and legal regulation in the context of digitalization.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) yield and quality depending on the osmotic potential and the number of stems

Objective: To evaluate the biochemical components, physical characteristics (number of stems and fruit), and yield of Saladette tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), Var. Cid F1, grown under greenhouse conditions and its response to a constant increase (from 1 to 2.5 dS m-1) of the osmotic potential of a nutrient solution, during three phenological stages (transplantation, 2nd cluster fruiting, and 6th cluster fruiting) of plants subjected to a single- and two-stem training system. Design/Methodology/Approach: A sampling was carried out in the 5th cluster to determine the physical characteristics (firmness, size, number, color) and biochemical components (total soluble solids, titratable acidity, vitamin C, lycopene, pH, electrical conductivity, and ripening index) of the fruits. The experiment was established in 2018, under a greenhouse hydroponic system at Colegio de Postgraduados. The experiment was set as randomized complete block design with four replicates. Results: The increase of osmotic potential and pruning had a positive effect on yield and number of fruits without affecting the biochemical components. Regarding the physical characteristics, T1 had 76% large fruits, 19% medium-sized fruits, 4% small fruits, and 1% tiny fruits. Study Limitations/Implications: This methodology should be evaluated to other tomato varieties using different substrate mixtures and rates of chemical and organic fertilizers to evaluate water response and crop yield. Findings/Conclusions: Increasing the osmotic potential of the nutrient solution, during phenological stages of maximum water and nutrient demand and the removal of old leaves had a positive response by increasing fruit number, size, and yield.

Electrical properties as a tool for oil and gas exploration: A case study of Wadi Saal, east Central Sinai, Egypt

Abstract Some rock samples (39) have been obtained from Wadi Saal, East Central Sinai, Egypt, for studying electrical, petrographical, and petrophysical parameters. The petrographal analysis shows two major facies. Carbonate (limestone) facies with low porosity (11%) and permeability (69 mD), and sandstone facies with high porosity (28%) and permeability (5901 mD) indicate good reservoir characteristics. Porosity values are related to the bulk density, whereas permeability is controlled by rock porosity and irreducible water saturation. Alternating current (AC) electrical properties were measured with frequency (42 Hz–5 MHz) for samples. Electrical characteristic differences are affected with texture changes, mineralogy, porosity, tortuosity, pore-water salinity, mineral concentrations, permeability, and fluid content. Conductivity and impedance decrease whenever an insulator is existed. The dielectric constant increases with conductor composition (below the percolation) and falls with frequency beyond it. The conductivity expands with the number of conductor pathways connecting the electrodes. The primary objective of this work is to use laboratory AC electrical measurements to shed some light on the relationship between the texture, petrography, petrophysics, and geochemical composition of materials (sandstone and limestone). The goal is to study electrical properties of these mixtures at varying clay concentrations and saturation levels. These analyses could enhance oil and gas recovery by shedding light on reservoir rock electrical characteristics.

Understanding the dielectric properties of silicone rubber‐BN nanocomposites under DC voltage

AbstractThe present study explores the dielectric and structural properties of silicone rubber composites with low‐weight percentages of boron nitride (BN) fillers aimed at insulation applications. The incorporation of BN fillers into the silicone rubber matrix significantly enhances the glass transition temperature (Tg), melting temperature (Tm), and crystallization temperature (Tc). Notably, the dielectric constant increases while the loss factor remains minimal with a low concentration of BN fillers with silicone rubber matrix. J–V characteristics from space charge limited current (SCLC) measurements were employed to evaluate trap density. The addition of 3 wt% BN filler notably improves the crossover voltage and trap density in the silicone rubber matrix. A strong correlation has been observed between trap density values derived from SCLC measurements and surface potential decay experiments. Furthermore, the SCLC measurements at different temperatures exhibit an Arrhenius behavior, providing insights into the charge transport and trapping mechanisms. Overall, the experiment results indicate that the inclusion of 3 wt % of BN filler has significant improvement in dielectric as well as charge trap characteristics.Highlights BN filler impacts permittivity and tan (δ) based on concentration levels. Differential scanning calorimetry shows crystallinity changes with increased BN filler in silicone rubber. Surface potential relates to J–V characteristics, following SCLC mechanism. Arrhenius relation to temperature‐based SCLC shows thermally activated conduction. Trap density trends align in SCLC and surface potential decay methods.

Impacts of the Evolution of Physical Climate Risks on European Business Activities: the case of construction sector

Nowadays, the constant increase in the intensity and frequency of extreme weather events, attributed to climate change, is exerting growing pressure on companies across various sectors. These businesses are becoming increasingly vulnerable to diverse physical climate risks. Changes in regulatory frameworks regarding the identification, management, and communication of climate risks are further encouraging companies to adopt a proactive approach in assessing these risks. This study, employing an innovative methodology, demonstrates how risk management professionals can leverage currently available climate data to identify climate risks that have the most impact on their performance indicators. We illustrate this methodology by applying it to the construction production sector in France.

Neuroimmune axis: Linking environmental factors to pancreatic β-cell dysfunction in Diabetes.

Pancreatic β-cells are specialized in secreting insulin in response to circulating nutrients, mainly glucose. Diabetes is one of the most prevalent endocrine-metabolic diseases characterized by an imbalance in glucose homeostasis, which result mainly from lack of insulin production (type 1 diabetes) or insufficient insulin and peripheral insulin resistance (type 2 diabetes), both influenced by genetic and environmental components. Pancreatic β-cell dysfunction and islet inflammation are common characteristics of both types of the disease. Pancreatic islets are a highly innervated tissue whose function can be influenced by the brain, either directly through the autonomic nervous system or indirectly via neuroendocrine mechanisms. In addition, it is well-established that there is a fine-tuned communication between the immune and neuroendocrine tissues in maintaining endocrine pancreas homeostasis. Various psycho-social, physico-chemical and lifestyle environmental factors have been associated with diabetes risk. In this review, I briefly comment on certain aspects of the psycho-neuro-immune interactions that link environmental factors and the endocrine pancreas, leading to metabolic health or diabetes. Interdisciplinary research, embracing new and broader perspectives, should be conducted to explore strategies for preventing or slowing down the constant increase in diabetes worldwide.

Effect of surfactants on inactivation of Bacillus subtilis spores by chlorine.

Bacterial spores pose significant risks to human health, yet the inactivation of spores is challenging due to their unique structures and chemical compositions. This study investigated the synergistic effect between surfactants and chlorine on the inactivation kinetics of Bacillus subtilis spores. Two surfactants, cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB) and cetyltrimethylammonium chloride (CTMA) were selected to investigate chlorine disinfection in absence and presence of surfactants. The concurrent presence of both chlorine and surfactant resulted in a moderate reduction in the lag-phases for spore inactivation and negligible increase in the second-order inactivation rate constants. In contrast, when the spores were pre-exposed to surfactants, the lag-phases decreased by about 50 % for both CAPB and CTMA, and the second-order inactivation rate constants during post-chlorination remained constant for CAPB but increased by a factor of 2.3 for CTMA, compared to the control group with phosphate buffer. This synergistic effect became more pronounced with longer surfactant pre-exposure times, reaching its maximum at 3-6 h. The observed synergistic effect suggests that surfactants can potentially enhance the permeability of the coat which is the outmost layer of B. subtilis spores and a primary barrier for chemical disinfectants. Tracing a group of B. subtilis spores sequentially treated with surfactant and chlorine by atomic force microscopy, a significant decrease in compressive stiffness of the spores was observed due to exposure to surfactants, indicating alterations in the coat by surfactants. The trend in reducing compressive stiffness aligned well with the decrease of lag-phases in inactivation kinetics. Furthermore, CTMA was found to inactivate B. subtilis spores through mechanisms different from chlorine. Chlorine primarily inactivated B. subtilis spores before damaging the inner membrane of the spores which plays a crucial role in protecting the genetic material stored in the core of the spores. In comparison, CTMA damaged 22 % of the inner membrane for an inactivation efficiency of 99 %. A synergistic effect in damaging the inner membrane was observed when applying CTMA and chlorine simultaneously instead of sequentially.