Conservation Value Of Forests Research Articles

The conservation value of forests can be predicted at the scale of 1 hectare

To conserve biodiversity, it is imperative to maintain and restore sufficient amounts of functional habitat networks. Therefore, the location of the remaining forests with natural structures and processes over landscapes and large regions is a key objective. Here we integrated machine learning (Random Forest) and open landscape data to scan all forest landscapes in Sweden with a 1 ha spatial resolution with respect to the relative likelihood of hosting High Conservation Value Forests. Using independent spatial stand- and plot-level validation data, we confirmed that our predictions correctly represent different levels of forest naturalness, from degraded to those with high and associated biodiversity conservation values. Given ambitious national and international conservation objectives and increasingly intensive forestry, our model and the resulting wall-to-wall mapping fill an urgent gap for assessing the achievement of evidence-based conservation targets, spatial planning, and designing forest landscape restoration.

Estimating the conservation value of boreal forests using airborne laser scanning

In sustainable forest resource management, establishing forest conservation areas is important to maintain forest biodiversity. However, assessing the conservation value of forests is challenging because the target areas are often both large and remote. We explored using dense airborne laser scanning (ALS) data to estimate conservation values. Field data were collected at sites in Sweden for standing deadwood (S trees), laying deadwood (L trees), and trees considered particularly important for conserving biodiversity (N trees), and forest conservation values were determined using a commonly employed method in the field. A template matching method was then used to detect L, S and N trees from ALS data. L trees were identified from linear features in the point cloud above the ground, with a 52 % detection error rate. S and N trees were identified from unusually small or large crown diameters, with 71 % and 83 % error rates, respectively. We also tested the relationships between the three types of indicator tree, their summed values and the field inventory-assessed conservation values. Regressions between the assessed conservation values and ALS indicators were most robust comparing the three test sites when using the summed number of L, S, and N trees. A wall-to-wall map covering a 3 km × 4 km area was generated using Kernel density estimation of the summed number of ALS-derived indicators, to represent relative conservation values. The map was validated using 10 1-ha plots, and yielded an R2 value of 0.6 for predicted conservation values at the plot level. We conclude that ALS data can be used to map forest conservation values and inform decisions about which forests should be used for timber production and which should be set aside as conservation areas. The maps could also be used as a data source for habitat analysis.

The conservation value of forests and tree plantations for beetle (Coleoptera) communities: A global meta-analysis

While mature forests are declining worldwide, tree plantations could provide habitats of conservation value for forest-adapted species. However, to what degree the fauna in tree plantations matches the diversity and composition of mature forest communities is still debated. In this meta-analysis, we used beetle species (Coleoptera) as biodiversity indicators to assess the conservation value (i.e. the log response ratio in species richness and abundance and the Soerensen similarity) of tree plantations versus reference old-growth forests. We tested the effects of biome, plantation age, tree species richness and origin, surrounding habitat and the trophic position of the focal guild on the diversity and composition of beetle communities.Our results showed that tree plantations generally harboured communities with 47% less individuals, 33% less species and a significantly distinct composition than old-growth forests. In the case that tree plantations had a similar number of species or individuals as old-growth forests, those plantations still displayed a 40% difference in species composition. Beetle abundance was significantly lower in tropical/subtropical plantations and for detrivorous species. We found no further significant drivers of beetle diversity and community composition in tree plantations.We conclude that, although tree plantations can provide crucial habitats for forest-adapted species, they generally harbour less diverse and significantly different communities, highlighting the conservation value of old-growth forests as biodiversity refuges. To properly assess the conservation value of plantations in different taxa, we propose the use of species composition instead of single diversity indices.

Biodiversité et services écosystémiques en forêts tropicales : le rôle des affectations des terres forestières dans la région du Dja, Cameroun

Des dizaines de millions de personnes dépendent des forêts tropicales pour leur subsistance en Afrique centrale. Ces écosystèmes abritent une biodiversité unique et fournissent d'importants services écosystémiques (SE), qui peuvent varier en fonction des stratégies de gestion. Dans cette thèse de doctorat, nous avons évalué la biodiversité et les services écosystémiques dans le paysage du Dja au Cameroun, dans trois affectations des terres forestières : une aire protégée, une concession forestière certifiée FSC et trois forêts communautaires. Tout d'abord, nous avons évalué la valeur de conservation des forêts sur la base de la richesse et de la composition en espèces de deux groupes taxonomiques : les mammifères et les bousiers. Les espèces les plus grandes et les plus menacées ont été détectées dans l’aire protégée et les zones les plus éloignées de la concession forestière, mieux préservées de l'influence humaine. En revanche, les forêts communautaires sont particulièrement défaunées et dégradées en raison de leur proximité avec les routes et les villages, mais elles couvrent des superficies beaucoup plus limitées et conservent une canopée fermée. Deuxièmement, des entretiens identifiant les perceptions de l'offre en SE ont montré que, contrairement aux services de régulation qui ont été rarement mentionnés, les services d’approvisionnement et culturels sont les plus importants pour les populations locales. Parmi ceux-ci, la viande de brousse est le seul service pour lequel l’offre de la forêt n’est pas suffisante pour les populations locales. Troisièmement, en combinant des entretiens et enquêtes de terrain, nous avons quantifié l'utilisation de huit SE d'approvisionnement et culturels par les populations locales. Nous avons constaté que le bois de feu et le bois d'œuvre sont utilisés de manière durable par les populations locales, tandis que la chasse et la consommation de viande de brousse dépassent les seuils de durabilité. Concilier la conservation de la faune sauvage, la sécurité alimentaire et les pratiques de chasse durable est un défi majeur en Afrique centrale. Pour ce faire, il est essentiel d’intégrer toutes les parties prenantes dans les stratégies de gestion forestière durable, permettant d’identifier les leviers sociaux qui sous-tendent les changements de comportement des utilisateurs des forêts.

Diversity and structure of bird communities in contrasting forests of the Hengduan Mountains, China

Rapid economic development has led to high rates of deforestation and widespread alteration of land cover in many regions in China, where many primary forests have been replaced by secondary and plantation forests. Therefore, we aimed to determine differences in bird community diversity and structure between three forest types. We assessed differences in species richness, phylogenetic and functional diversity and community structure of bird communities in primary, secondary and plantation forests. Data was collected over four meteorological seasons from bird communities in a nature reserve in the Hengduan Mountains, China. We found that functional and phylogenetic diversity in secondary forest were significantly greater than in primary forest, while species richness was not significantly different. Thus, simple metrics (i.e. species richness) may not be sufficient to assess forest conservation value. We suggest that it is necessary to use varied diversity metrics that incorporate species’ similarities and differences. It also appears that secondary forests play an important role in the maintenance of studied bird biodiversity. The results of community structure analyses show that the habitat filter was strongest in the primary forest, leading to primary forest species being lighter in weight, shorter in body length, and with longer tarsometatarsus. These species were specialized and forest-dependent, reflecting the value of primary forests as an irreplaceable habitat type for several species after nearby forests are degraded.

Participatory monitoring reveals village-centered gradients of mammalian defaunation in central Africa

Tropical areas are facing a bushmeat crisis involving the systematic over-exploitation of large-bodied mammals for both subsistence and commercial purposes. We hypothesize that because hunting generally originates from villages, it will create “halos of defaunation” where abundances of large mammals increase with distance away from villages. Whilst such patterns have been well characterized at the landscape scale, examining how defaunation halos vary between different villages has received considerably less attention. Forests immediately surrounding villages are of considerable importance to the people residing within them and the factors hypothesized to influence local defaunation halos (e.g. village size, hunting practices and access to local markets) may affect local livelihoods and the ecological integrity of nearby forests. To address this, we adopted a participatory approach to establish and monitor sixty transects across ten village-distance gradients (1-8 km) in Gabon. Trained paraecologists, recruited from local villages, walked each transect twice monthly to determine the encounter rates of medium and large mammals across the village distance gradient and monitored village-level bushmeat availability.We found that overall rates of mammal observation and estimated species richness were constant across the village-distance gradient, however the total number of individuals encountered and bushmeat biomass were lower close to villages – consistent with local depletion of wildlife. These general trends were underpinned by depleted mammal species diversity with increasing proximity to villages and a marked shift in mammal community composition: small, non-hunted species were encountered most frequently near villages, whereas large, hunted species were encountered most frequently away from villages. We found some evidence for inter-village variation in the strength and depth of defaunation halos, which may be driven in part by the village-level hunting intensity. Several of the key parameters identified in landscape-scale bushmeat studies did not detectably influence village-level defaunation (e.g. road or market distance). Despite the prevalence of bushmeat hunting in the region, the conservation value of forests immediately surrounding villages was demonstrated through the detection of large-bodied species of conservation concern (e.g. chimpanzee and gorilla) at a high proportion of survey locations.The compositional shifts in mammal communities detailed here will ultimately lead to the altered composition and diversity of forests around villages, with potential implications for human livelihoods, health and transmission of zoonotic disease. This research also demonstrates the effectiveness of engaging paraecologists to answer focused ecological questions - the first step in facilitating effective natural resource management by local communities.

Opportunity costs of forest conservation in Wilberforce Island, Niger Delta, Nigeria

The objectives of this study is to assess the acceptability and opportunity cost of forest conservation program as well as the impact of alternative source of income on forest conservation in the Wilberforce Island. Data were obtained from five communities through self-administered questionnaires and analysed as Proportions and ranked. Results showed that only 40.8% of the population favoured forest conservation, while 51.2% rejected forest conservation. However, when asked if forest conservation program would be accepted if an alternative source of income, equivalent to the net present value of forest conservation was provided, 64.0% of the respondents accepted forest conservation. In spite of increased acceptance of forest conservation following the provision of an alternative source of income, only 46.4% of the respondents believed this would help in preventing further deforestation in the Wilberforce Island. An assessment of the income level of respondents showed an average monthly income of ₦33,640.00 (₦403,680.00/$1,122.00 @₦360.00/$ per annum). For farmers and loggers, average monthly income was ₦23,648.00 (₦283,776.00/$788.00 per annum) and ₦46,577.00 (₦558,924.00/$1,553.00 per annum). This income level was estimated to be the opportunity cost of forest conservation in the Wilberforce Island. It was concluded that additional measures and an alternative income higher than currently earned can make forest conservation possible in the area. Keywords: Forest Conservation, deforestation, opportunity cost, Wilberforce Island

Lack of Araceae in Young Forests Highlights the Importance of Mature Forest Conservation

We compared Araceae abundance among mature forests, secondary forests, and plantations (8–14 years) in central Panama. Araceae colonization was virtually nonexistent in secondary forests and plantations. Low humidity, relatively short forest stature, and time could drive this absence. These results highlight the conservation value of forests containing intact populations of Araceae.

Tree related microhabitats in temperate and Mediterranean European forests: A hierarchical typology for inventory standardization

Tree related Microhabitats (hereafter TreMs) have been widely recognized as important substrates and structures for biodiversity in both commercial and protected forests and are receiving increasing attention in management, conservation and research. How to record TreMs in forest inventories is a question of recent interest since TreMs represent potential indirect indicators for the specialized species that use them as substrates or habitat at least for a part of their life-cycle. However, there is a wide range of differing interpretations as to what exactly constitutes a TreM and what specific features should be surveyed in the field.In an attempt to harmonize future TreM inventories, we propose a definition and a typology of TreM types borne by living and dead standing trees in temperate and Mediterranean forests in Europe. Our aim is to provide users with definitions which make unequivocal TreM determination possible. Our typology is structured around seven basic forms according to morphological characteristics and biodiversity relevance: i) cavities lato sensu, ii) tree injuries and exposed wood, iii) crown deadwood, iv) excrescences, v) fruiting bodies of saproxylic fungi and fungi-like organisms, vi) epiphytic and epixylic structures, and vii) exudates. The typology is then further detailed into 15 groups and 47 types with a hierarchical structure allowing the typology to be used for different purposes. The typology, along with guidelines for standardized recording we propose, is an unprecedented reference tool to make data on TreMs comparable across different regions, forest types and tree species, and should greatly improve the reliability of TreM monitoring. It provides the basis for compiling these data and may help to improve the reliability of reporting and evaluation of the conservation value of forests. Finally, our work emphasizes the need for further research on TreMs to better understand their dynamics and their link with biodiversity in order to more fully integrate TreM monitoring into forest management.

Competition between injunctive social norms and conservation priorities gives rise to complex dynamics in a model of forest growth and opinion dynamics

Human and environmental systems are often treated as existing in isolation from one another, whereas in fact they are often two parts of a single, coupled human-environment system. Developing theoretical models of coupled human-environment systems is a continuing area of research, although relatively few of these models are based on differential equations. Here we develop a simple differential equation coupled human-environment system model of forest growth dynamics and conservationist opinion dynamics in a human population. The model assumes logistic growth and harvesting in the forest. Opinion spread in the human population is based on the interplay between conservation values stimulated by forest rarity, and injunctive social norms that tend to support population conformity. We find that injunctive social norms drive the system to the boundaries of phase space, whereas rarity-based conservation priorities drive the system to the interior. The result is complex dynamics including limit cycles and alternative stable states that do not occur if injunctive social norms are absent. We found that the model with injunctive social norms had five possible observable outcomes, whereas the model without social norms had only two stable states. Thus social norms and have dramatic influence in conservation dynamics. We also find that increasing the conservation value of forests is the best way to boost and stabilize forest cover while also boosting conservationist opinion in the population, although for some parameter regimes it can also give rise to long-term oscillations in opinions and forest cover. We conclude that simple models can provide insights and reveal patterns that might be difficult to see with high-dimensional computational models, and therefore should be used more often in research on coupled human-environment systems.

Additionality When REDD Contracts Must be Self-Enforcing

This paper examines self-enforcing contracts as a financial mechanism for reducing carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation when the opportunity cost of the land (i.e., landholder type) is private information and is imperfectly correlated over time (i.e., partially persistent types). Because self-enforcement limits the feasible incentives, the conservation levels are constrained by the surplus created. Regardless of the degree of persistence of such opportunity costs across contracting periods, a first-best self-enforcing contract can deliver “additional” carbon sequestration beyond the business as usual scenario only if the value of forest conservation is sufficiently high. Otherwise, self-enforcing contracts can induce some, suboptimal level of carbon sequestration. The degree of persistence of opportunity costs across periods does not affect the amount of total payments provided in the optimal menu of contracts, but greater persistence of opportunity cost types leads to contracts that feature more of the total payment as a bonus in contracts for landholders with a high opportunity cost for their land and more of the total payment as an upfront fixed payment for landholders with a low opportunity cost.

Endangered and endemic species increase forest conservation values of species diversity based on the Shannon-Wiener index

Species diversity is the most important component of biodiversity and plays an important role in maintaining forest ecosystem processes and stability. The assessment of the forest conservation value of species diversity is commonly carried out based on the Shannon-Wiener index. However, endangered and endemic species were always ignored in previous studies aimed at assessing the conservation value of forest species diversity. In this study, the conservation value of forest species diversity was assessed in two representative provinces of southern and northern China (Yunnan and Jilin provinces, respectively). The conservation values of species diversity for different forest types was calculated based on the standard Shannon-Wiener index, and on two different indexes derived from it by including: (i) an endangered species index (Ei) based on the China Species Red List; (ii) an endemic species index (Bx) based on the geographic distribution of the species considered. The results showed that the inclusion of the endangered and endemic species indexes dramatically increased the forest conservation values in these two provinces. The total conservation value in the Yunnan province was 268.65 billion yuan yr-1 based on the Shannon-Wiener index, 269.78 billion yuan yr-1 after including Ei in the assessment, and 324.44 billion yuan yr-1 after the inclusion of both Ei and Bx. In Jilin province, the total conservation value was 123.94 billion yuan yr-1 based on the standard Shannon-Wiener index, 124.60 billion yuan yr-1 after including Ei, and 125.74 billion yuan yr-1 after including both Ei and Bx in the assessment. Therefore, the inclusion of endangered and endemic species in the assessment of forest conservation values, as well as other aspects related to biodiversity like the presence of ancient trees, can contribute to the protection of endangered and endemic species in these two provinces of China.

Effects of fragmentation and landscape variation on tree diversity in post-logging regrowth forests of the Southern Philippines

The conservation value of forest fragments remains controversial. An extensive inventory of rainforest trees in post-logging regrowth forest in the southern Philippines provided a rare opportunity to compare stem density, species richness, diversity and biotic similarity between two types of post-logging forests: broken-canopy forest fragments and adjacent tracts of closed-canopy ‘contiguous’ forest. Tree density was much lower in the fragments, but rarefied species richness was higher. ‘Hill’ numbers, computed as the exponential of Shannon’s diversity index and the inverse of Simpson’s diversity index, indicated that fragments have higher numbers of typical and dominant species compared to contiguous forest. Beta diversity (based on species incidence) and the exponential of Shannon’s diversity index was higher in fragmented forest, indicating higher spatial species turnover than in contiguous forest samples. Lower mean values of the Chao-Jaccard index in fragmented forest compared to contiguous forest also indicated a lower probability of shared species across fragments. The high species richness of contiguous forest showed that an earlier single logging event had not caused biodiversity to be degraded leaving mostly generalist species. Fragmentation and further low-level utilisation by local farmers has also not caused acute degradation. Post-logging regrowth forest fragments present a window of opportunity for conservation that may disappear in a few years as edge effects become more apparent. For the conservation of trees in forests in south-east Asia generally, our findings also suggest that while conservation of remaining primary forest may be preferable, the conservation value of post-logging regrowth forests can also be high.

Viable contribution of Tibetan sacred mountains in southwestern China to forest conservation.

The Tibetan sacred mountains (TSMs) cover a large area and may represent a landscape-scale conservation opportunity. We compared the conservation value of forests in these mountains with the conservation value of government-established nature reserves and unmanaged open-access areas in Danba County, southwestern China. We used Landsat satellite images to map forest cover and to estimate forest loss in 1974-1989, 1989-1999, and 1999-2013. The TSMs (n = 41) and nature reserves (n = 4) accounted for 21.6% and 29.7% of the county's land area, respectively. Remaining land was open-access areas (i.e., areas without any restrictions on resource use) (56.2%) and farmlands (2.2%). Within the elevation range suitable for forests, forest cover did not differ significantly between nature reserves (58.8%) and open-access areas (58.4%), but was significantly higher in TSMs (65.5%) after controlling for environmental factors such as aspect, slope, and elevation. The TSMs of great cultural importance had higher forest cover, but patrols by monastery staff were not necessarily associated with increased forest cover. The annual deforestation rate in nonsacred areas almost tripled in 1989-1999 (111.4 ha/year) relative to 1974-1989 (40.4 ha/year), whereas the rate in TSMs decreased in the later period (19.7 ha/year vs. 17.2 ha/year). The reduced forest loss in TSMs in 1989-1999 was possibly due to the renaissance of TSM worship and strengthened management by the local Buddhist community since late 1980s. The annual deforestation rate in Danba decreased dramatically to 4.4 ha/year in 1999-2013, which coincided with the implementation of a national ban on logging in 1998. As the only form of protected area across the Tibetan region during much of its history, TSMs have positively contributed to conserving forest at a landscape scale. Conservation of TSM forests largely relied on the strength of local religious institutions. Integrating community-based conservation of TSMs within the government conservation network would benefit the conservation of the Tibetan region.

Partial recovery of a tropical rain forest a half‐century after clear‐cut and selective logging

Summary The extent to which tropical rain forests recover tree species richness, composition and community structure after clear‐cutting or selective harvest is controversial. Thus, the conservation value of forests regenerated after harvest remains unclear, but critically important for biodiversity. We sampled trees from 164 25 × 25 m quadrats across a 160‐km2 tropical rain forest landscape on Hainan Island, China, which had been clear‐cut or selectively harvested and left to recover without management for up to 50 years. Species richness and species abundance distributions were compared among five successional categories to investigate changes in species richness and species abundance over time. Basal areas and three different species similarity indices were compared to reveal temporal changes in species composition and community structure. Species richness recovered faster than species composition and structure in both selectively logged and clear‐cut forests. Both total number of species and number of rare species tended to increase from younger harvested forests through older harvested forests to old‐growth intact forests. Within 20–40 years after harvest species composition of harvested forests tended towards that of old‐growth forests, community similarity between harvested and old‐growth forests decreased subsequently and basal area did not recover, given even a half‐century of succession undisturbed by anthropogenic forces. Shortly after harvest, pioneer species increased rapidly, but shade‐tolerant species required much more time to recover to former abundances. The shift from pioneer species to shade‐tolerant species indicates significant recovery of logged forests. Selectively logged forests recovered more quickly and had higher conservation values than clear‐cut forests. Synthesis and applications. Our findings indicate that logged tropical forests only partially recovered the characteristics of pre‐harvest, primary forest after a half‐century of succession. Recovery of the original tree biodiversity on such post‐harvest landscapes will be slow at best, if measured by species composition or stand structure. Our study amplifies the importance of conserving tropical forest integrity and developing harvest and management approaches that facilitate full recovery of logged tropical forests.

Comparative effectiveness of silvicultural interventions for increasing timber production and sustaining conservation values in natural tropical production forests. A systematic review protocol

Background: Currently, about 400 million hectares of tropical moist forests worldwide are designated production forests, about a quarter of which are managed by rural communities and indigenous peoples. There has been a gradual impoverishment of forest resources inside selectively logged forests in which the volume of timber extracted over the first cutting cycle was mostly from large, old trees that matured over a century or more and grew in the absence of strong anthropological pressures. In forests now being logged for a second and third time, that volume has not been reconstituted due in part to the lack of implementation of post-logging silvicultural treatments. This depletion of timber stocks renders the degraded forests prone to conversion to other land uses. Although it is essential to preserve undisturbed primary forests through the creation of protected areas, these areas alone will not be able to ensure the conservation of all species on a pan-tropical scale, for social, economic and political reasons. The conservation of tropical forests of tomorrow will mostly take place within human-modified (logged, domesticated) forests. In this context, silvicultural interventions are considered by many tropical foresters and forest ecologists as tools capable of effectively conserving tropical forest biodiversity and ecosystem services while stimulating forest production. This systematic review aims to assess past and current evidence of the impact of silviculture on tropical forests and to identify silvicultural practices appropriate for the current conditions in the forests and forestry sectors of the Congo Basin, Amazonia and Southeast Asia. Methods: This systematic review will undertake an extensive search of literature to assess the relative effectiveness of different silvicultural interventions on timber production and the conservation value of forests, and to determine whether there is a relationship between sustainability of timber harvesting and the maintenance/conservation of other ecosystem services and biodiversity in production forests. Data will be extracted for meta-analysis of at least sub-sets of the review questions. Findings are expected to help inform policy and develop evidence-based practice guidelines on silvicultural practices in tropical forests.

Coppice abandonment and its implications for species diversity in forest vegetation

Coppicing, once a common type of management in European broadleaved forests, was abandoned in many places after WWII. This form of management provided a variety of structural and microclimatic conditions for tree and understorey vegetation. After the abandonment of this intensive management, succession towards mature close forests ensued, and suitable habitats for species ecologically connected to coppicing were reduced. In our study, we chose a region in central Europe where coppicing was the dominant type of forest management until the first half of the 20th century but was abandoned after WWII. We investigated long-term changes in both woody and herbaceous species composition in the Lower Morava UNESCO Biosphere Reserve using historical sources and vegetation plot resurveys from the 17th to the 21st century. The impact of coppice abandonment on vegetation composition and on the conservation value of forests was evaluated. Dominant tree species appeared to be very stable throughout the past four centuries, but changes occurred in their proportions. A shift from species rich oak–hornbeam woodland towards species poorer communities with increasing proportions of lime, ash and maple was observed after the abandonment of coppicing. The observed tendencies partly differed according to site and data source. The conservation value of forests was measured as the occurrence of red-list species, which were considerably reduced after coppice abandonment. To stop the process of biodiversity loss and support the goals of nature conservation, the re-establishment of coppice management is proposed.

The Value of Forest Conservation for Water Quality Protection

Forests protect water quality by reducing soil erosion, sedimentation, and pollution; yet there is little information about the economic value of conserving forests for water quality protection in much of the United States. To assess this value, we conducted a meta-analysis of willingness-to-pay (WTP) for protecting unimpaired waters, and econometrically determined several significant drivers of WTP: type of conservation instrument (tool), aquatic resource type, geographic context, spatial scale, time, and household income. Using a benefit transfer to two highly forested sites, we illustrate the importance of these factors on WTP for water quality protection programs, forest conservation and policy design.

Evaluating the ecological effects of social agent scenarios for a housing development in the Atlantic Forest

Environmental planning must define criteria that permit comparisons among past landscapes and future scenarios that are easily understood by all of the social agents involved in the shared planning decision. The present study evaluated the ecological effects of alternative implementations of one residential housing development proposed by agents on protected areas of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Based on these agents’ proposals, this study created five future scenarios and compared these with three historic landscapes and an expected legally protected landscape. The comparison was based on certain criteria that determine forest conservation value. The metrics we used included resource availability, potential connectivity, and forest fragmentation tendency. Our results highlight the importance of considering the compliance map with legal expectation as a reference, as well as the limitations of environmental laws for the purpose of forest conservation. We conclude that housing development maintains the landscape connectivity and may not result in substantial forest loss in area. In contrast, regardless of the proposed future scenario, the housing development does not guarantee optimum resource availability, and metric values are lower than in historic landscapes.

Conservation value of forests attacked by bark beetles: Highest number of indicator species is found in early successional stages

Heavy natural disturbance in large protected areas of former commercial forests increasingly evokes European parliaments to call for management intervention because a loss of habitats and species is feared. In contrast, natural early successional habitats have recently been recognised as important for conservation. Current knowledge in this field mostly results from studies dealing only with selected taxa. Here we analyse the success of species across 24 lineages of three kingdoms in the Bavarian Forest National Park (Germany) after 15 years of a European spruce bark beetle (Ips typographus L.) outbreak that led to rapid canopy opening. Using indicator species analysis, we found 257 species with a significant preference for open forests and 149 species with a preference for closed forests, but only 82 species with a preference for the stand conditions transitional between open and closed forests. The large number of species with a preference for open forests across lineages supports the role of this bark beetle as a keystone species for a broad array of species. The slowdown of the outbreak after 15 years in the core zone of the national park resulted in less than half of the area being affected, due to variability in stand ages and tree species mixtures. Our case study is representative of the tree species composition and size of many large protected montane areas in Central European countries and illustrates that (1) natural disturbances increase biodiversity in formerly managed forests and (2) a montane protected area spanning 10,000ha of low range mountains is likely sufficient to allow natural disturbances without a biased loss of closed-forest species.