Marine Conservation Research Articles

A Comprehensive Review of Climatic Threats and Adaptation of Marine Biodiversity

Oceans play a vital role in socioeconomic and environmental development by supporting activities such as tourism, recreation, and food provision while providing important ecosystem services. However, concerns have been raised about the threat that climate change poses to the functions of oceans. This study examines the impacts, threats, and adaptation strategies of climate change and marine biodiversity. Using bibliometric and secondary data analysis, this study determines that climate change leads to rising sea temperatures, marine heatwaves, acidification, and increasing sea levels. These factors undermine the significance of ocean ecosystem services. This study also identifies the significant risks posed by climate change to marine species diversity and distribution, primarily through habitat degradation and shifts in species ranges. Scholarly focus on these challenges has grown over time, focusing on adaptation strategies and building resilience to mitigate adverse impacts. This study critically evaluates various adaptation measures, including nature-based and human-based solutions such as habitat restoration, policy and legislative frameworks, and their potential to protect marine ecosystems. It provides detailed discussions on the effectiveness of adaptation strategies such as marine protected areas (MPAs), mangrove and coral reef restoration, and species range shifts. This review also emphasises the significance of indigenous knowledge systems and community participation in marine conservation efforts to achieve holistic and sustainable management. It highlights the need for enhanced international cooperation and a transdisciplinary approach to address the complex interplay between climate change and marine biodiversity. Additionally, this study suggests that funding for research gaps and conservation can be secured through tourism revenue and other climate funding mechanisms.

Exploring the Role of Determinants Affecting Responsible Underwater Behaviour of Marine-Based Tourists.

This study utilised divers' demographic characteristics, diving experience, and attitudes to analyse the association between these factors and divers' responsible underwater behaviour among Chinese scuba divers in Hong Kong. More innovatively, the measurement construct of diving attitude was further employed as a mediator to investigate its influence on the relationship between divers' diving experience and responsible underwater behaviours based on the conceptual framework of previous works in the literature. The questionnaire data for this study were collected at four of the most popular dive sites among the marine protected areas in Hong Kong, with 398 valid samples after eliminating incomplete questionnaires. Regression results demonstrated that divers' demographic characteristics could significantly predict their responsible underwater behaviour, with age (b = 0.10, p < 0.05) and education (b = 0.15, p < 0.05) being found to be positively associated with their diving behaviour. In addition, path analysis demonstrated that divers' diving experience and attitude could explain 13.6% and 22.6% of the variance in predicting their responsible diving behaviour, respectively. However, no mediation effect was found on the relationship between diving experience and responsible underwater behaviour relative to diving attitude, given the absence of statistical effects regarding the positive impact of divers' diving experience on their attitude (β = 0.024, se = 0.022, t = 1.085, p = 0.279). Based on the research findings, theoretical and practical implications were discussed correspondingly, which are believed to be beneficial in promoting marine conservation and the sustainable development of marine-based nature tourism in Hong Kong.

Attitudes Towards Turtle Conservation: An Island Wide Study in Sri Lanka

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; Sri Lanka is visited by the five of the seven living sea turtle species recorded in the world. Sea turtle populations are declining, as is their ability to perform critical services in ocean ecosystems. Some of the obvious risks faced by marine turtles in Sri Lanka include incidental bycatch, illegal egg poaching, habitat change, destruction, and natural causes such as predation and erosion. Attitudes towards conservation of turtles and underlying motives for such attitudes is a lesser researched subject in the country. The present study therefore aims at assessing the attitudes of Sri Lankans towards conservation of sea turtles. A household survey was conducted using a pre-tested questionnaire adopting simple random sampling among 1084 households across the twenty-five districts of Sri Lanka through telephone and in-person interview from December 2021 to May 2022. The socioeconomic data of respondents, membership in a wild life or environmental organizations, recreational experience of turtles were also collected. A set of statements on sea turtles were presented for which the respondents indicated their preferences. Their willingness to contribute towards conservation was also recorded. The results of the study indicate that individuals from twenty-five districts had already been exposed to a wealth of knowledge regarding marine turtles and were well-informed. There were 603 individuals from coastal districts while 481 were from non-coastal districts. The average age was 45 years while number of respondents who had a membership of any environmental related wildlife organization was 164. Seventy four percent of the sample had seen live marine turtles; 37.6% of them had seen marine turtles in zoological gardens. Majority of respondents strongly agreed that (84% on average) sea turtles are worth protecting. Forty one percent of respondents agreed that it is everyone‘s duty to ensure the existence of plants and animals for future generations, showing that respondents had bequest motive for marine turtle conservation. Majority (63.3%) of respondents strongly agreed that sea turtles have the right to exist in the environment, showing that there is a strong existence motive for the conservation of sea turtles. The study emphasize the need to better utilize the strong motives of people for sea turtle conservation efforts in Sri Lanka that requires attention of legislators and decision-makers.&#x0D; Keywords: Sea turtle, Attitudes, Conservation, Motives&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

A pulse check for trends in sea turtle numbers across the globe

Population declines of vertebrates are common, but rebuilding marine life may be possible. We assessed trends in sea turtle numbers globally, building 61 time series of abundance extending beyond 2015, representing monitoring in >1200 years. Increases were widespread with significant upward trends, no significant change, and significant downward trends in 28, 28, and 5 time series, respectively. For example, annual nest numbers increased between 1980 and 2018 from around 4,000 to 16,000 for green turtles at Aldabra (Seychelles, Indian Ocean) and between 2008 and 2020 from around 500 to 35,000 for loggerhead turtles in Sal (Cape Verde, north Atlantic). However, conservation concerns remain. Major populations may experience declines, such as loggerhead turtles in Oman, while previous upward trends can be reversed, as with green turtles nesting at Tortuguero (Costa Rica, Caribbean). Further, decreases in abundance were evident in several leatherback turtle time series. These concerns show there is no room for complacency for sea turtle conservation.

The establishment of the Sea Turtle Conservation and Marine Pearl Educational Tourism Website in Sumbreng aims to promote ecosystem balance.

The coast is an area that has potential for tourist attractions, including for turtle conservation which is relied on as a support for the economy. Turtles are one of the protected animals, not just protected by law because they are feared they will become extinct. The Turtle Conservation "Pearl of the Masaran Sea" which is located on Sumbreng Beach, East Java, is one of the turtle conservation areas developed by the Trenggalek Lentera Society. Activities carried out at the turtle conservation site "Pearl of the Masaran Sea" include relocating turtle eggs, caring for turtle eggs, combing eggs, and also releasing hatchlings. There are 5 types of turtles that are protected on Sumbreng beach, some of which are green turtles and hawksbill turtles which are included in the Appendix I category, which means they are prohibited from being traded internationally. Apart from visiting tourists being able to see the turtle breeding process, this conservation also provides economic tourism such as small Jeep facilities that are used to get around the beach and releasing hatchlings in certain months. However, due to lack of exposure to this conservation area. This resulted in a small number of tourists coming, and also some tourists coming in the wrong month and not being able to see the hatchlings being released onto the beach. Therefore, this service presents an innovation in the form of a website facility that is useful for updating all activities taking place at the "Pearl of the Masaran Sea" Turtle Conservation. So it can attract more tourists to visit this tourist attraction and tourists can also find out which months are effective for visiting this tourist attraction. It is hoped that the "Pearl of the Masaran Sea" turtle conservation will have the potential for educational tourism which can be developed further, so that it can support the economy of the surrounding community and can also be used as a source of income for managing the turtle conservation itself.

Modulations of ocean-atmosphere interactions on squid abundance over Southwest Atlantic

Anthropogenic shifts in seas are reshaping fishing trends, with significant implications for aquatic food sources throughout this century. Examining a 21-year abundance dataset of Argentine shortfin squids Illex argentinus paired with a regional oceanic analysis, we noted strong correlations between squid annual abundance and sea surface temperature (SST) in January and February and eddy kinetic energy (EKE) from March to May in the Southwest Atlantic. A deeper analysis revealed combined ocean-atmosphere interactions, pinpointed as the primary mode in a rotated empirical orthogonal function analysis of SST. This pattern produced colder SST and amplified EKE in the surrounding seas, factors crucial for the unique life stages of squids. Future projections from the CMIP6 archive indicated that this ocean-atmosphere pattern, referred to as the Atlantic symmetric pattern, would persist in its cold SST phase, promoting increased squid abundance. However, rising SSTs due to global warming might counteract the abundance gains. Our findings uncover a previously unrecognized link between squids and specific environmental conditions governed by broader ocean-atmosphere interactions in the Southwest Atlantic. Integrating these insights with seasonal and decadal projections can offer invaluable information to stakeholders in squid fisheries and marine conservation under a changing climate.

Perceived social benefits and drawbacks of sea turtle conservation efforts in a globally important sea turtle rookery

Conservation interventions have wide-ranging social impacts - both positive and negative. Yet a limited understanding of how conservation initiatives affect people’s livelihoods often hinders our ability to learn from past efforts and design more effective and equitable conservation measures. This is particularly needed when there is a high degree of overlap between critical habitats and human activities or a high cultural and economic demand for products derived from the conservation target. Here, we explore the social impacts of sea turtle conservation initiatives implemented on São Tomé Island (Gulf of Guinea) as a case study and consider how these might enhance or hinder future efforts. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with key actors involved in the sea turtle trade in December 2014-February 2015 (prior to the implementation of key initiatives) and February-April 2022. Our findings suggest a clear reduction in the scale of the sea turtle trade and the number of main actors involved. However, most respondents previously involved in the trade had experienced economic displacement and several associated social impacts, such as the reduced ability to support family and friends and food insecurity, due to trade restrictions. Financial capital was the main barrier to transitioning to alternative livelihoods, followed by the lack of skills and peer pressure. Finally, this study highlights the importance of considering human dimensions during the planning and implementation phase of conservation actions and the need for more investment focused on the well-being of communities to ensure the long-term survival of endangered species.

Waitt Foundation grants for ocean conservation, restoration programs

Waitt Foundation grants for ocean conservation, restoration programs

Sustainable Development and Competitiveness: Is There a Need for GCI Reconstruction?

Abstract Starting from competitiveness as the ability of an entity (company, sector, state) to successfully increase sales on the domestic and/or international market, and through a balance surplus to create growing revenues for its company and/or residents, i.e. the entire country, the concept of competitiveness should be transformed according to today’s business conditions. Competitiveness was initially related to cost, and sales grew due to lower product prices, and later due to productivity and better product quality. Today’s consumer is not only interested in price and quality, but also in environmental sustainability and social responsibility, and customers are looking for sustainable products. This paper investigates the relationship between the Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) index on a sample of 27 member states of the European Union in the period 2007-2017, with the main goal and purpose of determining the direction and strength of the relationship and creating a platform for the necessity of redesigning the GCI. The impact of climate change on the GCI was examined by the Sustainable Development Index. For this purpose, Difference GMM was used. The results show that SDG12 (waste generation) hurts competitiveness, while SDG14 (maritime, ocean conservation) has a positive impact on competitiveness. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse on the intersection of competitiveness and sustainability, providing a foundation for future discussions and potential reconstructions of indices that reflect the changing global environment.

Investigating human impacts on rocky reefs using measures of complexity and relief from 3D photogrammetry

AbstractThe structural complexity of a habitat is linked with the health and biodiversity of the ecosystem. Computational methods analyzing 3D representations of the environment allow for accurate measurement; however, rocky reef environments that feature gullies, arches, stacks, and ledges may be inaccurately represented using standard measures of complexity. This article presents a novel assessment of structural complexity through relief calculated from 3D reconstructions of marine environments, tailored for rocky reefs with vertical features. This method is tested in two case studies: a tropical coral reef in Indonesia and a rocky (chalk) reef in the United Kingdom. Chalk reef relief was not correlated with vector dispersion or fractal dimension and was weakly correlated with rugosity (); however, in two comparison tropical reef datasets, relief correlated moderately with vector dispersion on both coral reefs () and moderately‐strongly with rugosity (). On the chalk reef, tailored complexity metrics confirmed the previous finding that catch‐size Cancer pagurus abundance (≥115 mm) was correlated with fractal dimension (), indicating that adults preferred elevated, complex reefs. Analysis showed correlations between relief and low‐severity chalk damage () and between relief and abrasion damage (), whereas previous research had indicated that damage was not correlated with complexity (assessed computationally with rugosity, fractal dimension, and vector dispersion). Surveying marine environments with multicamera arrays and 3D photogrammetry can drastically reduce the time and cost of fieldwork surveys and provide accurate measures of complexity across survey sites. Adapting complexity metrics to habitat‐specific topography provides valuable insight (in this case, into rocky reef marine habitats). Findings from the UK case study support the continued monitoring of the Cromer Shoal Chalk Bed Marine Conservation Zone (MCZ).

The first assessment of marine litter on Somalian coast: The case of Liido Beach, Mogadishu

This paper presents the first assessment of marine litter in the Mogadishu coastal area of Somalia. Samples were collected monthly using 100 m × 40 m transect and classified following OSPAR Marine Litter Survey Guide while litter sources were identified using Ocean Conservancy Marine Debris Index. The results showed a total of 119873 items consisting of plastics (89.47%), clothing items (7.53%), and others (3.00%) recovered from Liido Beach. Litter density ranged from 2.19 items/m2 to 14.18 items/m2 with a mean of 6.25 items/m2 and Clean Coast Index (CCI) suggesting that Liido Beach is extremely dirty (>20 items/m2). In addition, the primary sources of marine litter at the beach are local recreational and shoreline activities (54.12%), and dumping (36.61%). The dominance of plastic litter on the beach poses potential threats to marine biodiversity in the Somalia coastal area and the West Indian Ocean. It is recommended that effective strategies and solutions to mitigate litter on the beach and other coastal areas in Somalia should be developed and compensated with public education and awareness campaigns across the country.

Are Differing Viewpoints Amongst Key Actors Influencing Implementation of Key Eu Marine Environmental Policies? Case Of Strictly Protected Areas

The transboundary nature of marine ecosystems and their more difficult accessibility create challenges for the conceptualisation of effective marine conservation, because of the compleity of the marine functioning and often unclear competences. Marine conservation thus often relies on (international) policies. The EU environmental policies are known for their high ambition levels. However, their implementation has been subpar so far. This study investigates the viewpoints of marine nature, wilderness, and strict protection in the EU seas and whether those help eplain why the implementation of EU marine environmental policies has been incoherent and uncoordinated so far. The viewpoints and nature imaginaries were investigated amongst key actors in policy implementation from national to the EU and Regional Sea Conventions levels, using policy analysis, diagramming, and Living Q workshops. The results show a variety of divergent viewpoints that frame marine issues in different ways, resulting in different interpretations of common policies and definitions, as well as a variety of policy implementation priorities. The variety of different values associated with marine nature, wilderness, and the role of EU policies is thus likely to influence the way common EU policies will be implemented in the future and by etension their effectiveness.

Analysis of The Integrity of Attitudes, Behavior, Openness and Honesty of Captured Fisheries Enterprises for The Conservation of Fish and Marine Resources

Integrity of attitude, behavior, openness and honesty are important things that capture fisheries business actors must have. Deviations in integrity are allegedly equivalent to criminal acts of corruption because they have the potential to cause very large losses to the state, which are difficult to detect and the value of the losses. In addition, failure to fulfill integrity has a huge potential for loss of sustainability of fisheries resources in the long term, and is difficult to recover. The research aims to examine the relationship between the integrity of capture fisheries business actors and efforts to preserve fish and marine resources. Descriptive research using a literature study approach combined with a limited discussion process with aquatic resource management experts in order tomaintain the sustainability of fish population dynamics due to capture fisheries exploration. The research results show that the integrity component which concerns attitudes, behavior, openness and honesty of capture fisheries business actors is an absolute thing that must be implemented and developed. Potential state losses worth billions of rupiah accompanied by massive damage to marine resources can be avoided if capture fisheries business actors carry out exploration properly and report their activities honestly and openly to the competent government authorities as a control over resource sustainability.

TURTLE CONSERVATION CAMPAIGN AS A TOURIST ATTRACTION FOR BALI

Most sea turtle species around the world are threatened with extinction. The threat of sea turtle extinction is largely caused by humans for consumption, souvenirs, trade, medicine and religious activities as well as for commercial purposes such as the sale of eggs, meat and shells. This human behavior is threatening sea turtle populations. Preventing the decline of these threatened sea turtle populations requires changes in human behavior that are educated through conservation campaigns. This international service was carried out with the aim of recognizing local culture and local wisdom products and participating in painting traditional Thai pottery. This activity is a community service activity that collaborates between the Faculty of Economics and Business of Swadaya Gunung Jati University Indonesia, Panca Sakti Tegal University Indonesia, Suan Dusit University and Eastern Instutite for Integrated Learning in Management University India. Community service activities were carried out in Nong Nooch Thailand, with a total of 25 participants consisting of 10 students and 15 lecturers. Sea turtle conservation is one of the community's efforts to preserve the environment and sea turtle habitat for the survival of sea turtles

Targeting ocean conservation outcomes through threat reduction

Nations have committed to reductions in the global rate of species extinctions through the Sustainable Development Goals 14 and 15, for ocean and terrestrial species, respectively. Biodiversity loss is worsening despite rapid growth in the number and extent of protected areas, both at sea and on land. Resolving this requires targeting the locations and actions that will deliver positive conservation outcomes for biodiversity. The Species Threat Abatement and Restoration (STAR) metric, developed by a consortium of experts, quantifies the contributions that abating threats and restoring habitats in specific places offer towards reducing extinction risk based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM. STAR is now recommended as an appropriate metric by recent disclosure frameworks for companies to report their impacts on nature and STAR has seen widespread uptake within the private sector. However, it is currently only available for the terrestrial realm. We extend the coverage of the threat abatement component of the STAR metric (START), used to identify locations where positive interventions could make a large contribution to reducing global species extinction risk and where developments that increase threats to species should be mitigated, to the marine realm for 1646 marine species. Reducing unsustainable fishing provides the greatest opportunity to lower species extinction risk, comprising 43% of the marine START score. Three-quarters (75%) of the global marine START score falls entirely outside the boundaries of protected areas and only 2.7% falls within no-take protected areas. The STAR metric can be used both to guide protected area expansion and to target other actions, such as establishment and enforcement of fishing limits, to recover biodiversity.

Lipophrys pholis is larger, grows faster and is in better condition in protected than in unprotected rocky shores

Abstract Intertidal fish are a key component of littoral food webs, contributing to the diets of birds and commercial fish species. Ascertaining their growth and condition can therefore help understand the health status of local communities. Lipophrys pholis is a fish of the rocky intertidal with a wide distribution throughout the North‐eastern Atlantic (NE Atlantic) that has been recommended for use as an indicator in the environmental biomonitoring of marine ecosystems. However, it is unclear yet if this species is sensitive to the reserve effect. In this study, the size, growth and body condition of specimens caught at protected and unprotected rocky shores of two contrasting marine provinces of the NE Atlantic were analysed to address whether L. pholis is sensitive to the reserve effect. L. pholis were larger, grew faster in weight and were in better condition in the protected shores of both provinces. A faster growth rate was observed in the populations of the warmer province. Inshore waters of unprotected sites in the Northern European Seas sampled in this study have recently been incorporated into a protected area. Thus, these results can help assess the success of the marine conservation programme and the time L. pholis needs to improve its population's health at these shores. Regulating access to shores to avoid trampling and harvesting is a protection measure that can help enhance the health and conservation of L. pholis populations.

Public awareness and perceptions of ocean plastic pollution and support for solutions in the United States

We conducted a nationally-representative survey of United States (U.S.) adults (n=1,960) in 2021 to gather insights on the knowledge, perceptions, and concerns about threats to the ocean, with a specific focus on plastics and microplastic pollution. Responses from the U.S. adult survey group were compared to a group of highly-engaged, Ocean Conservancy members who are very attuned to ocean issues (n=882). Ocean Conservancy is a U.S.-based nonprofit environmental advocacy group working to protect the ocean from today’s greatest challenges. Plastic pollution was the primary ocean concern identified by both U.S. adults and Ocean Conservancy members, surpassing eight other threat categories including oil spills, chemical and nutrient pollution, and climate change. Broad concern was reported for both study groups about the impacts of ocean plastics on marine wildlife, with human health and coastal community impact concerns being less prominent. About half of U.S. adults and 90% of Ocean Conservancy members had heard of microplastics. Both study groups indicated widespread support for microplastic pollution prevention measures in the U.S. and believed industry to be most responsible for taking action to address it. Ocean Conservancy members were generally better informed and more concerned about plastic pollution impacts and microplastics than U.S. adults and reported significantly greater levels of personal action to reduce their plastic footprint when compared to U.S. adults. In general, U.S. adults reported a willingness to refuse single-use plastics, but less frequently brought personal food containers to restaurants for takeout, or contacted local representatives or businesses about reducing plastic waste and pollution. Overall, our survey results provide new insights about public understanding of ocean threats and plastic pollution, willingness to participate in individual plastic-reduction actions, and support for needed solutions.

Lessons from Lyme Bay (UK) to inform policy, management, and monitoring of Marine Protected Areas

Abstract This decade represents a critical period to profoundly rethink human–nature interactions in order to address the interwoven climate and biodiversity crises. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) demonstrate promise for increasing ecosystem resilience and reversing habitat and population declines, but outcomes vary considerably from context to context. Partially protected areas offer a compromise between ecological recovery and the social needs of local communities, but their success is contingent on an array of factors. This in-depth review summarizes 15 years of marine conservation research and impact in Lyme Bay (southwest UK), to serve as a model for the future adoption of partially protected MPAs. The findings from the UK’s longest integrated socioecological monitoring MPA study are presented and supplemented by an evaluation of the whole-site management approach as a core element of Lyme Bay’s achievements. The journey from research to improved monitoring and ambitious policy is illustrated within and interspersed with stories of novel discoveries, ongoing challenges, and method developments. What started as a dedicated group of community members has grown into an immense collaboration between fishers, scientists, NGOs, and regulators, and their combined efforts have sent ripple effects of positive change across the globe.

Global marine conservation priorities for sustaining marine productivity, preserving biodiversity and addressing climate change

Marine primary productivity is a critical driver of functioning marine ecosystems, providing a foundation for biological diversity and associated economic productivity, and a key component of the oceanic carbon sink. However, it is largely under-represented within the global marine protected area estate and has been widely ignored in global priority assessments for marine conservation. Using global high-resolution data on marine primary productivity and human cumulative impact to marine systems, more than 18.6 million km² of high productivity-low impact areas in the global ocean were identified. These areas occur across all ocean basins and represent the vast majority of marine provinces and ecoregions. Over 80% of these highly productive waters with low levels of human impact lies within national jurisdictions and yet only 11% of the overall identified area is currently safeguarded within designated marine protected areas or sustainable management initiatives, leaving more than 16.5 million km2 of high productivity-low impact areas without those forms of formal protection. The multifaceted contribution of these areas to preserve biodiversity, support human welfare and help mitigating climate change suggest they are an essential, but currently overlooked, conservation priority for consideration in both global nature conservation and human wellbeing policy fora.

Framing seascape connectivity modeling to prioritize marine conservation effort in China’s coastal sea

Anthropogenic disturbances and climate change are projected to become leading drivers of biodiversity loss and ecological connectivity degradation in marine ecosystems. However, the lack of quantitative understanding for seascape connectivity modeling hinders our ability in providing large-scale marine conservation guidance. By applying well-established theories and tools in landscape connectivity study and marine-specific indicators, we proposed a framework to evaluate the resistance-based seascape connectivity among marine habitats and Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) across China’s coastal sea. The spatial vulnerability of marine habitats was further assessed to prioritize conservation effort. Our results showed that 82% of China’s coastal seas were covered with middle to high level of resistance for migratory marine species, mainly due to concentrated inshore anthropogenic disturbances such as ship traffic and ocean pollution. With the modeled migration distances of different species guilds from short-range (25 km) to long-range (100 km), the area percentage of connected corridors increased from 12.02% to 44.68% in the study area. Vulnerable areas were identified as high resistance (high exposure) and abundant threatened species (high sensitivity) but with small number of connected corridors (low adaptive capacity), primarily distributed in offshore regions of Yellow Sea and East China Sea. Collectively, inshore regions with high anthropogenic disturbances warrant regulation and mitigation in major coastal cities and ports. While the lack of interconnected networks for offshore regions prioritized efforts to enhance seascape connectivity through the establishment of MPA network. Sensitive species groups require more attention in future marine conservation, including threatened populations, climate refugees of marine species, and species with limited movement ranges. This study highlights the potential of developing seascape connectivity model based on landscape theories, and the importance of seascape connectivity study in guiding evidence-based marine conservation strategies.