Reef Conservation Research Articles

Oyster abundance on subtidal reefs depends on predation, location, and experimental duration

AbstractPredation affects community structure and functioning within marine habitats. Predator–prey interactions can change through space and time. Documenting how these interactions change is essential to improve our understanding of food web dynamics and to enhance our ability to manage preferred species. In this study, our goals were to determine whether the density of subtidal oysters (Crassostrea virginica) differed spatially by looking at three separate restored oyster sanctuaries within Pamlico Sound (North Carolina, USA), whether oyster density changed over an interval of 16 months, and whether oyster density was related to the presence of different‐sized predators by using an experimental approach. Multiple exclusion treatments were used in situ to exclude, selectively, different predator guilds from consuming oysters. Predator densities were also measured both within experimental treatments and on the restored oyster reefs by using multiple survey techniques. We found that oyster abundance differed among the four sample dates over the 16‐month study and differed among the three sites. Mud crabs—one of the smallest predators measured—had the greatest predator biomass per unit of area, but the presence of other predators was largely site‐dependent. Oyster abundance was affected by the exclusion of all predators, but this was dependent on sample date and location, which may suggest that mud crabs were the only predator to reduce oyster abundance in this study. In addition, large predators may have affected small predators, such as mud crabs and oyster drills, which were more abundant in treatments where large predators were excluded. The strongest evidence for top‐down effects on oyster reefs occurred at one of the three field sites at the first and final sampling time, suggesting that predator effects are complex, as well as spatially and temporally variable. Field experiments that assess variables through time and at multiple locations are needed as this information could improve the success of oyster reef conservation and restoration efforts.

Consideration of Genetic Structure in the Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas Criteria: A Review of Convention on Biological Diversity Regional Workshops and A Case Study of Coral Reef Conservation Planning

In this study we reviewed the use of genetic information in the Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSA) of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). We also evaluated genetic indicators for each criterion of important marine areas. We proposed five genetic indices, mainly based on microsatellite analysis (e.g., private allele frequency and number of cryptic species), then selected EBSAs in tropical and temperate zones of Japan based on eight coral species as a case study. Finally, we compared the results with the findings from conventional species-based EBSAs. In the EBSAs genetic information was mainly used in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in the Baltic Sea; it was rarely applied in the Southern Hemisphere and Asian regions. Although typically applied to large organisms, genetic information is used to various organisms, including benthic and bacterial communities. Genetic data are used as indicators of diversity and endemism. Genetic indices were available for all seven EBSA criteria, but only five indices of three criteria were used. Examination of important areas of corals in the temperate zone using these indices showed that the indices without genetic indicators extracted a large number of important areas in the tropics; however, the use of genetic indicators identified important locations, including in temperate zones. Comparison with conventional, mainly species-based non-genetic methods showed less than 50% agreement, although particularly important sites in marine protected areas were identified by both methods. While there is still more work to be done, such as consideration of the number of survey sites or target species, one reason is that species-based methods tend to evaluate tropical areas higher. Therefore, these genetic indices are useful for examining important regions, particularly in temperate zones; they revealed cryptic lineages, indicating that many unknown marine taxa should be considered in vulnerable marine areas. Some indicators could be extracted with additional effort, such as population size estimation, immigration, or the use of next-generation sequencing, thus guiding future studies. Because limited genetic information was available in the early stages of EBSA selection, there is a need for systematic surveys and evaluations, particularly in the Southern hemisphere, Asian region, and in small organisms.

Study on the Development and Growth of Coral Larvae

Studies on the early development of corals are required for academic research on coral reefs and applied reef conservation, but the interval between observations is usually weeks or months. Thus, no study has comprehensively explored the development of coral larvae after settlement. This study observed Galaxea fascicularis, Mycedium elephantotus, Pocillopora verrucosa, and Seriatopora caliendrum larvae after settlement, including their growth process and the formation of tentacles, skeletons, and polyps. The G. fascicularis and M. elephantotus polyps exhibited the skeleton-over-polyp mechanism, whereas the P. verrucosa and S. caliendrum polyps exhibited the polyp-over-skeleton mechanism. During asexual reproduction, the Symbiodiniaceae species clustered on the coenosarc, resulting in polyp development and skeletal growth. M. Elephantotus was unique in that its tentacles were umbrella-shaped, and its polyp growth and Symbiodiniaceae species performance during asexual reproduction differed from those of the other three corals. Although both P. verrucosa and S. caliendrum have branching morphologies, their vertical development stages were dissimilar. S. caliendrum relied on the mutual pushing of individuals in the colony to extend upward, whereas P. verrucosa had a center individual that developed vertically. The findings of this study can serve as a reference for future research on coral breeding, growth, and health assessments.

Establishing a baseline decision context for restoring the Great Barrier Reef ‐ Implications for long-term management

Coral reef ecosystems are facing inevitable environmental change and additional management approaches are needed to help them prepare for a climate changed future. Yet, for such approaches to influence long-term reef conservation and management, decision makers must be ready to consider future change and uncertainty throughout the decision-making process. Using the values-rules-knowledge (VRK) perspective, this study examines the decision-making context on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) at a time when new, and potentially riskier, management interventions, such as reef restoration, were being considered and reflects whether the decision context was suited to the challenges facing the GBR at the time. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders involved in managing and protecting the GBR, as well as participant observation at the Great Barrier Reef Restoration Symposium 2018. Qualitative analysis reveals that the decision context was partially aligned to the emerging situation on the GBR but inhibited by interacting social and political factors. This study provides essential baseline data to measure the decision context for future reef restoration activities.

Translocation of intertidal corals in highly urbanized Mumbai seascape: A pragmatic management initiative towards ecosystem conservation

Coral reefs harbour rich biodiversity by increasing heterogeneous habitat and providing numerous ecosystem services and goods. However, they are highly threatened due to ongoing climate change and various anthropogenic activities. Therefore, the protection of corals is enforced by laws and legislative machinery around the globe. The present work is a case study in the highly urbanized Mumbai city, where a coastal road project required dredging and reclamation that overlapped with a coral habitat. A detailed environmental mitigation plan was undertaken to preserve the fragile corals at the proposed project site. A total of 329 colonies of Pseudosiderastrea tayamai Yabe & Sugiyama, 1935, were relocated from the project site to a recipient site after verifying the habitat suitability. Monthly coral health monitoring was conducted for one year after their relocation to the new habitat. After one year of translocation, 92.1% (n = 303) colonies survived and were in healthy state. Coral bleaching is a well-known phenomenon that occurs due to extreme variability in temperature, salinity and siltation etc. In the present study, coral bleaching was observed during monsoon (July – September 21) wherein maximum (94.83%) occurred in August 21 and minimum (4.86%) was in November 21. Algal overgrowth on coral colonies (maximum 38.9%), and sediment smothering (maximum 44.8%) were observed, but no colony mortality was noted (Jan – May 21). Whereas, 3.4% mortality was recorded during monsoon season only. The gross new recruitment (n = 22) of corals was also recorded collectively during the months of April, May and November 21. Therefore, the current study suggests that relocating corals from coastal development sites, where habitat loss is unavoidable, could be considered a tool that will aid in conservation of urban reefs. This study proves that only committed involvement of stakeholders and project proponents who have developmental perspective with environmental accountability can achieve the sustainability of rare and fragile ecosystems.

Biological trade-offs underpin coral reef ecosystem functioning.

Human impact increasingly alters global ecosystems, often reducing biodiversity and disrupting the provision of essential ecosystem services to humanity. Therefore, preserving ecosystem functioning is a critical challenge of the twenty-first century. Coral reefs are declining worldwide due to the pervasive effects of climate change and intensive fishing, and although research on coral reef ecosystem functioning has gained momentum, most studies rely on simplified proxies, such as fish biomass. This lack of quantitative assessments of multiple process-based ecosystem functions hinders local and regional conservation efforts. Here we combine global coral reef fish community surveys and bioenergetic models to quantify five key ecosystem functions mediated by coral reef fishes. We show that functions exhibit critical trade-offs driven by varying community structures, such that no community can maximize all functions. Furthermore, functions are locally dominated by few species, but the identity of dominant species substantially varies at the global scale. In fact, half of the 1,110 species in our dataset are functionally dominant in at least one location. Our results reinforce the need for a nuanced, locally tailored approach to coral reef conservation that considers multiple ecological functions beyond the effect of standing stock biomass.

Limited human access is linked to higher effectiveness in a marine sanctuary

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are a widely used tool for coral reefs conservation, but massive tourism activities inside MPAs worldwide can challenge their effectiveness. This study investigated the role of different levels of protection strictness (no-entry, low and high tourism-allowed zones) set for a marine sanctuary in shaping benthic cover and reef fish community structure in the richest and largest coral reef system of the Southwestern Atlantic. Reef fish community structure and benthic cover differed between protection levels. No-entry zones showed significant higher coral coverage and biomass of piscivores and herbivores than tourism-allowed zones. Highest differences were found between no-entry and high tourism intensity zones. Despite the fact that protection from fishing by itself can ensure conservation benefits, we show here that the establishment of no-entry zones improve MPAs effectiveness.

Investigating law enforcement for coral reef conservation of the Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia

The coral reef ecosystem in the Spermonde Archipelago manifests great potential in ecosystem services. However, it has been degraded to “severely damaged”. In this study we investigated the law enforcement related to coral reef conservation, especially the damage caused by destructive actions. We used mixed qualitative and quantitative methods. We explored existing laws, conductedsemi-structured interviewswith6 informants (five fishermen and one judge), collected data on regional convictions data,and surveyed 48 respondents with a quantitative questionnaire, in 5 sampling sites: South Galesong District, Takalar Regency; KodingarengLompo Island,Sangkarrang District Makassar city, Kapoposang Island; Sarappoand Papandangan Island; PangkajeneandKepulauan Regency. This study detected 26 destructive cases, in which the perpetrators were found guilty by the court with the consideration that their actions damaged the coral reef ecosystem. The perpetrators used bombs, cyanide, and cantrangnets to catch fish and collect corals for trading. The imposed sentence was mild and far from the maximum penalty, both in imprisonment and fine. Notably, none of the perpetrators were sentenced to half of the main legal threats. 96% of (n = 48) respondents in our study area disagreed with the mild penalty. A mild penalty may not provide deterrent effects to the perpetrators or others who have an intention to conduct similar activities.The questionnaire showed that most of the locals know about the conservation area (66%) and its regulation (88%). The best solution to strengthen the conservation effort is to quickly establish a fisheries court in Spermonde Archipelago, which is also supported by locals (92% agreed to the establishment). A fisheries court could examine, adjudicate, and decide fisheries criminal cases, such as illegal fishing and destructive fishing within their jurisdiction. The court could be established by Presidential Decree and it will be under supervision of the Supreme Court of Republic of Indonesia.

A role for bacterial experimental evolution in coral bleaching mitigation?

Coral reefs are rapidly declining because of widespread mass coral bleaching causing extensive coral mortality. Elevated seawater temperatures are the main drivers of coral bleaching, and climate change is increasing the frequency and severity of destructive marine heatwaves. Efforts to enhance coral thermal bleaching tolerance can be targeted at the coral host or at coral-associated microorganisms (e.g., dinoflagellate endosymbionts and bacteria). The literature on experimental evolution of bacteria suggests that it has value as a tool to increase coral climate resilience. We provide a workflow on how to experimentally evolve coral-associated bacteria to confer thermal tolerance to coral hosts and emphasize the value of implementing this approach in coral reef conservation and restoration efforts.

Coral reef restoration for coastal protection: Crafting technical and financial solutions

Coastal erosion, aggravated by coral reef mortality is a major issue for Small Island Developing States. Traditionally gray infrastructure, financed by public budgets has been used to combat beach loss. We examined if three Nature-based Solutions (NbS): (i) coral restoration (green) (ii) restoration + limestone (hybrid) and (iii) restoration + 3D printed concrete (hybrid) could deliver positive outcomes for coastal protection and further incentivize cost sharing for reef conservation, with private beneficiaries. We modelled the impact of restoration on wave attenuation at two reefs off Barbados and simulated up-front and maintenance costs over a 25-year period. All solutions provide additionality when compared to gray infrastructure, especially in mitigating against Sea Level Rise. Restoration was the least costly with the highest risk of failure. The hybrid solutions, were less risky than the green as they provided immediate wave attenuation, alongside complementary services such as increased attractiveness due to the presence of reef fish. Their costs were however between +80% and +450% higher than gray solutions. While this might initially deter the use of NbS, blended finance and in some cases, Payments for Ecosystem Services, could provide options for governments and private beneficiaries to share costs, with ultimately greater benefits for themselves and coral reefs.

Hidden in the deep: Distinct benthic trajectories call for monitoring of mesophotic reefs

AbstractCoral reef conservation management depends on long‐term monitoring efforts for a sound understanding of ecosystem structuring, functioning, and dynamics. However, ongoing monitoring programs are almost exclusively focused on shallow depths, and it remains unclear to what extent those represent the whole ecosystem. Here, we present a temporal comparison (2012–2017) of directly adjacent shallow and mesophotic benthic communities across seven sites from the Great Barrier Reef and the Western Coral Sea. We found a positive relationship initially between shallow and mesophotic coral cover, with higher cover at shallow depths. However, this relationship was no longer significant after multiple disturbances, with coral cover significantly declining only at shallow depths. Point‐based tracking revealed the dynamic nature of mesophotic communities, with their consistent coral cover reflecting a net balance between substantial growth and mortality. Overall, the divergent trajectories highlight the urgency to expand coral reef monitoring efforts into mesophotic depths to ensure their unique characteristics can be accounted for in conservation management strategies.

A National Status Report on United States Coral Reefs Based on 2012–2018 Data From National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Coral Reef Monitoring Program

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Coral Reef Conservation Program supports the National Coral Reef Monitoring Program (NCRMP) in the United States Pacific, Atlantic, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico. NCRMP conducts standardized observations of biological, climatic, and socioeconomic indicators across American Samoa, Guam, the Main Hawaiian Islands, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, the Pacific Remote Islands, Florida, the Flower Garden Banks, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands. NCRMP provides periodic, national-level assessments of the status of United States coral reef ecosystems and communities connected to them. In 2014, NCRMP partnered with the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science on an unprecedented collaboration between federal and jurisdictional/state agencies, academia, and non-governmental organizations to synthesize NCRMP data into a reporting format designed to be accessible and relevant to the public and policy makers. The process involved multi-year data analyses of key benthic, fish, and climate indicators. In populated jurisdictions, socioeconomic data were integrated to assess public support for management actions, participation in pro-environmental behaviors, and awareness of threats to coral reefs. Jurisdictions were scored using a report-card scale (0–100%) by establishing references for each indicator using best-available historical data or expert opinion where historical data did not exist or were not statistically comparable. Despite overall ecosystem scores of Fair for all combined Atlantic (70%) and Pacific (74%) jurisdictions, the current trend is downward with a majority of United States coral reefs declining and vulnerable to further degradation. Remote, uninhabited reefs had an advantage with respect to reef fish population scores, i.e., Flower Garden Banks (85%) and Pacific Remote Islands (93%), when compared to populated location scores, i.e., Puerto Rico (63%) and Main Hawaiian Islands (66%). All coral reefs are highly impacted by climate change, and climate impacts were more pronounced than expected on remote reefs, i.e., the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (58%). Presenting results in a report-card style facilitates communication to the public and policy makers, and provides a useful mechanism to garner support for management actions such as expanding protected areas; enforcing existing regulations; increasing climate change education; reducing land-based sources of pollution; and other actions to improve the trajectory of coral reef ecosystem conditions.

Review: Drawing the Sea Near: Sautomi and Coral Reef Conservation in Okinawa

Review: Drawing the Sea Near: Sautomi and Coral Reef Conservation in Okinawa

The role of predators in coral disease dynamics

AbstractCoral disease is becoming increasingly problematic on reefs worldwide. However, most coral disease research has focused on the abiotic drivers of disease, potentially overlooking the role of species interactions in disease dynamics. Coral predators in particular can influence disease by breaking through protective tissues and exposing corals to infections, vectoring diseases among corals, or serving as reservoirs for pathogens. Numerous studies have demonstrated the relationship between corallivores and disease in certain contexts, but to date there has been no comprehensive synthesis of the relationships between corallivores and disease, which hinders our understanding of coral disease dynamics. To address this void, we identified 65 studies from 26 different ecoregions that examine this predator–prey-disease relationship. Observational studies found over 20 positive correlations between disease prevalence and corallivore abundance, with just four instances documenting a negative correlation between corallivores and disease. Studies found putative pathogens in corallivore guts and experiments demonstrated the ability of corallivores to vector pathogens. Corallivores were also frequently found infesting disease margins or targeting diseased tissues, but the ecological ramifications of this behavior remains unknown. We found that the impact of corallivores was taxon-dependent, with most invertebrates increasing disease incidence, prevalence, or progression; fish showing highly context-dependent effects; and xanthid crabs decreasing disease progression. Simulated wounding caused disease in many cases, but experimental wound debridement slowed disease progression in others, which could explain contrasting findings from different taxa. The negative effects of corallivores are likely to worsen as storms intensify, macroalgal cover increases, more nutrients are added to marine systems, and water temperatures increase. As diseases continue to impact coral reefs globally, a more complete understanding of the ecological dynamics of disease—including those involving coral predators—is of paramount importance to coral reef conservation and management.

A systematic review of artificial reefs as platforms for coral reef research and conservation.

Artificial reefs (ARs) have been used on coral reefs for ecological research, conservation, and socio-cultural purposes since the 1980s. We examined spatio-temporal patterns in AR deployment in tropical and subtropical coral reefs (up to 35° latitude) and evaluated their efficacy in meeting conservation objectives, using a systematic review of the scientific literature. Most deployments (136 studies) were in the North Atlantic and Central Indo-Pacific in 1980s – 2000s, with a pronounced shift to the Western Indo-Pacific in 2010s. Use of ARs in reef restoration or stressor mitigation increased markedly in response to accelerating coral decline over the last 2 decades. Studies that evaluated success in meeting conservation objectives (n = 51) commonly reported increasing fish abundance (55%), enhancing habitat quantity (31%) or coral cover (27%), and conserving target species (24%). Other objectives included stressor mitigation (22%), provision of coral nursery habitat (14%) or source populations (2%) and addressing socio-cultural and economic values (16%). Fish (55% of studies) and coral (53%) were the most commonly monitored taxa. Success in achieving conservation objectives was reported in 33 studies. Success rates were highest for provision of nursery habitat and increasing coral cover (each 71%). Increasing fish abundance or habitat quantity, mitigating environmental impacts, and attaining socio-cultural objectives were moderately successful (60–64%); conservation of target species was the least successful (42%). Failure in achieving objectives commonly was attributed to poor AR design or disruption by large-scale bleaching events. The scale of ARs generally was too small (m2 –10s m2) to address regional losses in coral cover, and study duration too short (< 5 years) to adequately assess ecologically relevant trends in coral cover and community composition. ARs are mostly likely to aid in reef conservation and restoration by providing nursery habitat for target species or recruitment substrate for corals and other organisms. Promoting local socio-cultural values also has potential for regional or global impact by increasing awareness of coral reef decline, if prioritized and properly monitored.

The Australian Coral Reef Society: the last 40 years of a century working with Australia’s coral reefs

On the 100-year anniversary of the Australian Coral Reef Society (ACRS), previously known as the Great Barrier Reef Committee (GBRC), we provide an overview of ACRS activities throughout its history, with a detailed account of key milestones in the last 40 years. We outline how the ACRS as promoted the protection and conservation of reefs, through expert advice, reviews, and submissions to enquiries. Examples are provided under the following themes: ACRS consultancy on zoning the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) Marine Park, marine protected area design, water quality on the GBR, port expansions along the Queensland coastline and environmental reform for the offshore oil and gas industry. We illustrate how scientists over recent decades have worked to better understand and encourage policy responses to the impacts of climate change on Australia’s coral reefs. For a hundred years, the GBRC-ACRS has provided an avenue for Australian coral reef scientists, managers and conservationists to influence reef governance through policy. While these unique avenues for delivering timely and targeted expertise have helped to reduce proximate threats to reefs at local scales, their outcome in relation to climate change, arguably the largest threat to Australia’s coral reefs, remains to be seen.

河北唐山曹妃甸-乐亭海域自然牡蛎礁分布及生态意义

牡蛎礁是生态系统服务价值最高的海洋生境之一，目前我国自然牡蛎礁分布和生态现状的基础信息仍然较缺乏。于2019年3月对河北唐山曹妃甸-乐亭海域自然牡蛎礁的空间分布、生态环境、牡蛎生物学和礁体动物群落开展了调查，并评估了该牡蛎礁的生态系统服务价值。该海域自然牡蛎礁分布于溯河（SR）、溯河口海域（SRE）和捞鱼尖海域（LYJ），总面积约15 km²，是目前我国面积最大的自然牡蛎礁。基于96个牡蛎样品的16S rDNA检测，共识别出92个长牡蛎Crassostrea gigas、3个侏儒牡蛎Nanostrea fluctigera和1个巨蛎属未知种Crassostrea sp.。自然牡蛎礁中牡蛎平均密度介于104-3912个/m²之间，不同礁区间牡蛎平均密度的大小排序为：SRE > SR > LYJ （P<0.05），平均生物量的大小排序为：SR > SRE > LYJ （P<0.05），平均壳高的大小排序为：SR > SRE=LYJ （P<0.05）。在该牡蛎礁内记录到49种礁体动物，其中软体动物16种、节肢动物16种、环节动物8种、棘皮动物5种、腔肠动物2种、星形动物和脊索动物各1种；礁体动物群落平均总密度介于28-552个/m²之间，不同礁区间大小排序为：SRE > SR > LYJ （P<0.05）。牡蛎密度与礁体动物群落总密度和总生物量之间呈显著正相关（P<0.05）。该自然牡蛎礁如未受破坏，则其生态系统服务价值高达6.90×10⁸元/年。该牡蛎礁是继海草场后在该海域发现的又一重要的温带海洋生境，是我国自然牡蛎礁地理分布的重大发现。建议加强该自然牡蛎礁的保护与修复，建设一个以牡蛎礁和海草场为核心的资源养护型国家级海洋牧场示范区。;Oyster reef is an important marine habitat that provides a variety of ecosystem services, including water filtration, nitrogen removal, carbon sink, habitat provision and erosion control. In the past decades, most of natural oyster reefs in the Chinese coasts were lost due to overfishing, pollution, sedimentation and habitat destruction. To date, little information was available on spatial distribution and ecological status of natural oyster reefs in China. This study investigated the spatial distribution, ecological environment, oysters and reef-associated resident benthic macroinvertebrate communities at the natural oyster reefs on the coast of Caofeidian-Leting, Tangshan, Hebei Province, and furthermore assessed the ecosystem service values of the natural oyster reefs on the coast. The natural oyster reefs, including three major distribution zones, namely Shouhe River (SR), Shouhe River estuary (SRE) and Laoyujian (LYJ), occupied the total area of about 15 km². To our knowledge it was recognized as the largest natural live oyster reefs in China. Ninety-two of 96 oyster specimens collected from the natural reefs were identified as pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas, 3 specimens for Nanostrea fluctigera and 1 specimen for unknown Crassostrea sp based on 16S rDNA gene sequence analysis. The mean live oyster densities ranged from 104 to 3912 ind./m² at the natural oyster reefs. The mean oyster metrics were ranked as follows (P<0.05):SRE > SR > LYJ for oyster densities, SR > SRE > LYJ for oyster biomass and SR > SRE=LYJ for oyster size (shell height). A total of 49 resident benthic macroinvertebrate species, belonging to 16 mollusks, 16 arthoropoda, 8 annelids, 5 echinodermata, 2 coelenterata, 1 sipuncula and 1 chordata, were recorded at the natural oyster reefs. The mean total densities of resident benthic macroinvertebrate communities varied between 28 and 552 ind./m² at the natural oyster reefs, with ranking as follows:SRE > SR > LYJ (P<0.05). The total densities and biomass of resident macroinvertebrate communities had significantly positive correlations with the oyster densities at the natural oyster reefs. The economic value of the full suite of ecosystem services derived from the natural oyster reefs was recently estimated to be as high as RMB 6.90×10⁸RMB/a. The discovery of the natural live oyster reefs contributed significantly to valuable information on the spatial distribution and ecological status of temperate coastal habitats in China. It was suggested that a national marine ranching demonstration zone should be built on the coast through the conservation and restoration of oyster reefs and seagrass beds.

Coral Reef Conservation Program (DOC)

Federal Grants & ContractsVolume 46, Issue 1 p. 3-3 Grants alerts Coral Reef Conservation Program (DOC) First published: 26 November 2021 https://doi.org/10.1002/fgc.32080Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume46, Issue12 December 2021Pages 3-3 RelatedInformation

Untangling the molecular basis of coral response to sedimentation.

Urbanized coral reefs are often chronically affected by sedimentation and reduced light levels, yet many species of corals appear to be able to thrive under these highly disturbed conditions. Recently, these marginal ecosystems have gained attention as potential climate change refugia due to the shading effect of suspended sediment, as well as potential reservoirs for stress-tolerant species. However, little research exists on the impact of sedimentation on coral physiology, particularly at the molecular level. Here, we investigated the transcriptomic response to sediment stress in corals of the family Merulinidae from a chronically turbid reef (one genet each of Goniastrea pectinata and Mycedium elephantotus from Singapore) and a clear-water reef (multiple genets of G. pectinata from the Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat). In two ex-situ experiments, we exposed corals to either natural sediment or artificial sediment enriched with organic matter and used whole-transcriptome sequencing (RNA sequencing) to quantify gene expression. Analysis revealed a shared basis for the coral transcriptomic response to sediment stress, which involves the expression of genes broadly related to energy metabolism and immune response. In particular, sediment exposure induced upregulation of anaerobic glycolysis and glyoxylate bypass enzymes, as well as genes involved in hydrogen sulphide metabolism and in pathogen pattern recognition. Our results point towards hypoxia as a probable driver of this transcriptomic response, providing a molecular basis to previous work that identified hypoxia as a primary cause of tissue necrosis in sediment-stressed corals. Potential metabolic and immunity trade-offs of corals living under chronic sedimentation should be considered in future studies on the ecology and conservation of turbid reefs.

The cost of leisure: the political ecology of the commercialization of Indonesia’s protected areas

ABSTRACT Using the political ecology approach, we investigated the Indonesian government’s decision to commercialize protected areas (PAs) and promote its tourism sector aggressively, and examined how this commercialization is enabled through various institutions and governing structures. We confirmed that the commercialization of PAs in Indonesia was an alternative accumulation, dealing with the crisis of capitalist accumulation. Our empirical finding showed that the commercialization of PAs in Indonesia had detimental environmental and social impacts, such as deadlocks or monopoly or management, and environmental deterioration. This commercialization pattern was different from accumulation by conservation in other regions, such as Africa, where local people were deprived of their access to the means of production, consequently becoming laborers in the tourism industry. In Indonesia, local people were given access to resources; however, as these resources were of little value, they became laborers in the tourism industry. Further research is needed to test whether different patterns of accumulation by conservation also apply to other types of PAs in Indonesia, such as national parks and customary forests, including various coral reef conservation areas in remote and small Islands used as tourist attractions.