Primate Conservation Research Articles

Predicted and verified distributions of Ateles geoffroyi and Alouatta palliata in Oaxaca, Mexico

Primate conservation requires a better knowledge of the distributions and statuses of populations in both large areas of habitat and in areas for which we currently have no information. We focused on spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) and howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. This Mexican state has protected large tracts of forest, and has historical records for both primates, although very little is known about them. To update our knowledge of the distributions of these primates and identify potential areas in which they are present, we modeled their geographic distributions by characterizing their ecological niches using the genetic algorithm for rule-set production (GARP), performed interviews and carried out field surveys. The predicted distributions, surveys and interviews indicate that the distributions of these primates are restricted to northeastern Oaxaca. The results suggest that spider monkeys occupy a wider area and elevational range than howler monkeys. Throughout that range there is a wide variety of suitable habitats for these primates. Most of the sites where monkeys were recorded in the field are not officially protected and there was evidence of hunting and habitat destruction. It is important to improve protection, economic alternatives and environmental education as we move towards an integral solution for the conservation of these species. Validation of the GARP model was done for A. geoffroyi, since we had obtained enough field data for this species; this validation indicated that the predicted distribution of the species was statistically better than expected by chance. Hence, ecological niche modeling is a useful approach when performing an initial assessment to identify distribution patterns, detecting suitable areas for future exploration, and for conservation planning. Our findings provide an improved basis for primate conservation and productive fieldwork in Oaxaca.

Human Impacts on Primate Conservation in Central Amazonia

Deforestation in the Amazon is a serious environmental, economic, and social concern. This article examines how a colonization plan to bring 180 families to an area north of Manaus, Brazil, would negatively impact the conservation of the six primate species residing in the area. The colonization sites would be located within the Biological Dynamics Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) study area, the longest-running study of forest fragmentation. An increase in human density in the area would likely increase deforestation and hunting pressure on the fauna, thereby threatening those species that have not fared well in forest fragments. Furthermore, the colonization plan threatens future research at BDFFP and other research sites, as well as the Central Amazonian Conservation Corridor. This would be a great scientific and conservation loss.

The primate palette: The evolution of primate coloration

AbstractFlip through The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates1 and you will notice a striking yet generally underappreciated aspect of primate biology: primates are extremely colorful. Primate skin and pelage coloration were highlighted examples in Darwin's2 original discussions of sexual selection but, surprisingly, the topic has received little research attention since. Here we summarize the patterns of color variation observed across the primate order and examine the selective forces that might drive and maintain this aspect of primate phenotypic diversity. We discuss how primate color patterns might be adaptive for physiological function, crypsis, and communication. We also briefly summarize what is known about the genetic basis of primate pigmentation and argue that understanding the proximate mechanisms of primate coloration will be essential, not only for understanding the evolutionary forces shaping phenotypic variation, but also for clarifying primate taxonomies and conservation priorities.

Primate Populations and Their Interactions with Changing Habitats

Given that 90% of nonhuman primates depend on tropical forests, the most effective way to conserve them must emphasize the conservation of tropical forest habitats. To achieve this effectively, we need to address root causes of forest disturbance in developing nations: poverty, high population growth rates, crippling foreign debts, and the overdependence on tree and land resources. Moreover, it is now generally accepted that most primate populations will in future live in modified forest habitats. Studies of how primate populations respond to forest habitat modifications are therefore critical to future primate conservation. Currently most studies of primate responses to forest habitat alterations are difficult to interpret owing to differences in research methods and lack of information on the past histories of the modified forests. We review potential factors that may have to be considered while evaluating primate responses to forest habitat changes such as degradation and fragmentation.

The International Primatological Society as a Coalition: Primatologists and the Future of Primates

Because we are currently losing the conservation struggle, new initiatives are worth considering. I suggest 4 of them. The International Primatological Society (IPS) might strengthen primate behavioral ecology partly by being more open to the significance of non-primate and human studies. We could stimulate more educational materials, particularly through encouraging professionals by giving our seal of approval for first-class efforts. We can encourage range-country sanctuaries in their conservation initiatives by supporting them through appropriate research plans. We can support global initiatives to promote political support for primate conservation. There are many such ideas that might have been proposed. I hope that this essay stimulates others.

Integrative approaches to the study of primate infectious disease: Implications for biodiversity conservation and global health

The close phylogenetic relationship between humans and nonhuman primates, coupled with the exponential expansion of human populations and human activities within primate habitats, has resulted in exceptionally high potential for pathogen exchange. Emerging infectious diseases are a consequence of this process that has the capacity to threaten global health and drive primate population declines. Integration of standardized empirical data collection, state-of-the-art diagnostics, and the comparative approach offers the opportunity to create a baseline for patterns of infection in wild primate populations; to better understand the role of disease in primate ecology, behavior, and evolution; and to examine how anthropogenic effects alter the zoonotic potential of various pathogenic organisms. We review these technologies and approaches, including noninvasive sampling in field conditions, and we identify ways in which integrative research activities are likely to fuel future discoveries in primate disease ecology. In addition to considering applied aspects of disease research in primate health and conservation, we review how these approaches are shedding light on parasite biodiversity and the drivers of disease risk across primate species.

Occurrence, local extinction and conservation of Primates in the corridor of the Upper Paraná River, with notes on other mammals

The region of Porto Rico, on the Upper Paraná River, is a contact zone between the Atlantic Rainforest and the Cerrado, with elements of the Pantanal wetlands. During surveys from September 2003 to September to 2005, we recorded the presence of non-volant mammals on 14 islands and the adjacent riverbanks. Surveys were by foot and by boat, and we also interviewed local people about the mammals of the region. Sightings of three primate species - Cebus nigritus (Goldfuss, 1809) (left margin of the river), C. libidinosus Spix, 1823 (right margin) and Alouatta caraya (Humboldt, 1812) (both margins and 12 islands) - were plotted on a satellite image. Alouatta clamitans Cabrera, 1940 was not recorded. However, interviews indicated that this species has occurred in this region in the past. The survey of mammals revealed the occurrence of 32 native species, a native genus with one or more unidentified species, and two introduced species [Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778 and Sus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758)]. The study discusses the permeability of the Paraná River to dispersal, as well as its potential as a geographical barrier to some species. Hypothesis on the local extinction of A. clamitans is also addressed. This study provides information that can be useful for promoting the conservation of this region.

A global gap analysis of infectious agents in wild primates

ABSTRACTA number of infectious diseases have emerged as threats to humans and wildlife. Despite the growing importance of georeferenced data for mitigating disease risk, information on parasite threat is patchily distributed at a global scale. In this paper, we explore the utility of gap analysis techniques to investigate the global geographical distribution of parasite sampling in non‐human primates. Specifically, we identify geographical areas that are undersampled for parasites in relation to primate geographical distributions, primate taxonomic sampling, primate threat status, and parasite taxonomy. Our results reveal that East Asia (particularly China), South‐East Asia, and the South American Amazon are the most deficient in sampling effort with respect to all criteria. We also identify sampling gaps based on several criteria in West and Central Africa. Future research aimed at filling these gaps is needed for both human health and primate conservation purposes.

Habitat Characteristics of the Endangered Hoolock Gibbons of Bangladesh: The Role of Plant Species Richness

ABSTRACTHoolock gibbons (Hoolock hoolock) are endangered small apes occurring in Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, and south China. All known populations have undergone declines primarily due to habitat destruction or alteration. We examined the influence of area of natural forests, area of plantations, area of agricultural land and edible plant species richness on the hoolock gibbon numbers from 22 sites in Bangladesh using multiple regression analysis. Area of natural forests and plantations were not linked to hoolock gibbon numbers, whereas area of agricultural land and edible plant species richness were both significantly linked. Higher edible plant species richness was directly related to hoolock gibbon numbers, while the area of agricultural land was inversely related. This is the first quantitative study illustrating the importance of these two variables with hoolock gibbon numbers. We also analyzed the existing habitat characteristics in two of the largest hoolock gibbon populations in Bangladesh: Lawachara (42 individuals) and Kaptai (84 individuals). Trees in Lawachara were generally smaller compared to those in Kaptai. Artocarpus, Tectona, and Dipterocarpus were the three most important genera in both sites, although Artocarpus was more important in Lawachara. Each site also had an abundant variety of tree species utilized by hoolock gibbons for food. We discuss the current context of primate conservation in Bangladesh and suggest that the current conservation priority for gibbons in the country should be protection and improvement of habitat.

Primatology comes to Africa

Primatology comes to Africa

Primate Ecology, Behavior, and Conservation

Primate Ecology, Behavior, and Conservation

Primate Conservation Incorporated

Primate Conservation Incorporated

Does the matrix matter? A forest primate in a complex agricultural landscape

Many threatened primates now exist in fragmented forest habitats. The survival of these populations may depend on their ability to utilise agricultural or other matrix habitats between forest fragments, but this is poorly known. Here, we systematically investigate an arboreal primate’s use of a heterogeneous matrix in a fragmented forest landscape: the Angola black-and-white colobus ( Colobus angolensis palliatus) in southern Kenya. We used a novel technique, based on semi-structured interviews with local informants, to address the difficulty of sampling relatively rare but important events, such as dispersal between fragments. We found that colobus frequently travelled and foraged in indigenous matrix vegetation (such as mangrove, wooded shrubland and shrubland) up to 4 km from the nearest forest fragments. Agricultural habitats, such as perennial plantation (coconut, mango and cashew nut) were also used by colobus for travelling and foraging (in remnant indigenous trees). The probability of sighting colobus in the matrix increased with the proportion of both tall (>6 m) vegetation cover and food tree cover, but declined with distance from forest habitat. Our findings suggest that certain matrix habitats are important for C. a. palliatus, and that future primate conservation initiatives might benefit from adopting a ‘landscape-level’ approach to habitat management, particularly in fragmented forest systems.

Patterns of gastrointestinal bacterial exchange between chimpanzees and humans involved in research and tourism in western Uganda

Ecological overlap may increase the risks of microbial exchange between humans and wild non-human primates. Escherichia coli bacteria were collected from chimpanzees and humans in Kibale National Park, western Uganda, in May and June 2004, in order to examine whether interaction between humans and apes in the wild might affect gastrointestinal bacterial communities in the two species. Chimpanzees harbored bacteria genetically more similar to those of humans employed in chimpanzee-directed research and tourism than to those of humans from a local village. Most humans (81.6%) and 4.4% of chimpanzees harbored at least one isolate resistant to locally available antibiotics. In isolates from both humans and chimpanzees, resistance was higher to five of these antibiotics than to Ceftiofur, an antibiotic not available in the region. These data indicate that humans and apes interacting in the wild can share genetically and phenotypically similar gastrointestinal bacteria, presumably originating from common environmental sources. Strategies to limit transmission of pathogens between humans and primates, whether that transmission is direct or indirect, would benefit both human health and primate conservation.

Edge Effects on the Density of Cheirogaleus major

We investigated how greater dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus major) densities, ambient air temperature, and dendrometrics (tree height and diameter) varied along forest edge-interior gradients in the Vohibola III Classified Forest in SE Madagascar. We also assessed if spatial variations in densities of Cheirogaleus major provide indirect evidence of increased predation pressure in the transition zone between edge and interior forest habitats, i.e., an ecological trap. We conducted diurnal temperature surveys (N = 394) and nocturnal surveys of Cheirogaleus major (N = 182) over 2 yr along 4 1250-m transects that ran perpendicular to the forest edge in Vohibola III. We did not see Cheirogaleus major from May to mid-September, and the highest sighting frequency occurred during October–November. Cheirogaleus major exhibited a negative edge response because densities ranged from low levels in edge habitats to higher levels in the forest interior. After we tested for spatial autocorrelation, edge-related variations in densities of Cheirogaleus major covaried most strongly with tree diameter. Edge responses of Cheirogaleus major may reflect spatial variations in fruit and liana abundance, though data are needed on the precise relationship between tree diameter and food production to confirm the relationship. Edge-related variations in densities of Cheirogaleus major may also provide indirect evidence of an ecological trap. Testing and controlling for spatial autocorrelation should be important components of future studies of primate conservation biology and ecology.

Analysis of disease-associated ND4 mutations: How do we know which mutation is pathogenic?

It is not uncommon to identify more than one mtDNA replacement mutations in the specimens from patients. However, we usually do not know if the identified mtDNA mutation is pathogenic or not. Even functional assays are available to use, we would not know which mutation(s) is to be tested. To provide a rapid method for initial evaluation for the pathogenicity of the replacement mutation, we compared three evolutional analyses: primate conservation index (PCI), mammalian conservation index (MCI), and conservation index across a wide spectrum of species (CI). After analyzing 35 so-called diseases-associated replacement mutations of ND4, we found 8 pathogenic mutations, 15 nonpathogenic mutations, and 12 mutations of undetermined significance. The MCI classification appears to be the best one among the three systems. This study demonstrates that evolutional analysis can serve as a rapid evaluation for the pathogenicity of mtDNA replacement mutations.

Polymerase chain reaction detection of Clostridium perfringens in feces from captive and wild chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes

For veterinary management of non-human primates in captivity, and conservation of wild-living primates, management of their health risks is necessary. Incidences of pathogenic bacteria in the fecal specimens are considered as one of the useful indicators for non-invasive health monitoring. We carried out the detection of Clostridium perfringens in feces from captive and wild chimpanzees by the rapid polymerase chain reaction method. The bacterium was detected in most fecal specimens (80%) in captive chimpanzees. Contrarily, the detection rate in the wild chimpanzees was low, with 23% (n = 12) of 53 fecal samples from the Bossou group, Guinea, and 1.2% (1/81) in the Mahale group, Tanzania. These results show that the intestinal microflora differs between Pan populations under various living conditions, being influenced by their diet and environment.

Noninvasive Assessment of Gastrointestinal Parasite Infections in Free-Ranging Primates

Recent evidence of emerging human diseases with origins or likely transmission to humans, or both, that involve primates and a greater recognition of the risk of human pathogen transmission to free-ranging primates have raised awareness of the potential impact of zoonotic pathogen transmission on primate conservation and nonhuman primate and human health. As human population density continues to increase exponentially, speeding the reduction and fragmentation of primate habitats, greater human-primate contact is inevitable and even higher rates of pathogen transmission are likely. Thus interest has grown in collecting baseline data on patterns of parasitic infections in wild primate populations to provide an index of population health and to begin to assess and, to manage disease risks. Primatologists traditionally have been involved with such surveys through noninvasive assessment of gastrointestinal parasites. Unfortunately, previous studies have tended toward divergent methodologies, compromising the potential for longitudinal and comparative work. Here, I provide practical guidelines and standardized methodologies for the noninvasive assessment of gastrointestinal parasites of primates.

Disease risk analysis: a tool for primate conservation planning and decision making

Concern about emerging and re-emerging diseases plays an increasing role in conservation and management of both captive and free-ranging nonhuman primates (NHPs). Managers and policy makers must formulate conservation plans in an arena plagued by uncertainty, complexity, emotion, and politics. The risk analysis paradigm provides a framework that brings together scientists and policy experts to make better decisions for both people and animals. Risk analysis is a multidisciplinary, science-based process that provides an organized and logical approach for incorporating scientific information into policy development in the real world. By blending four specific goal-oriented stages-hazard identification, risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication-one can logically assess the probability that an adverse event, such as the introduction of an emerging disease into a naïve population, will occur. The following is a review of this process as it pertains to NHP conservation and risks associated with infectious diseases.

Disease risk analysis: a paradigm for using health‐based data to inform primate conservation and public health

Risk analysis is a multidisciplinary process used to evaluate existing knowledge in order to prioritize risks associated with the spread of disease. A principle aim of risk analysis is to facilitate the development of cost-effective management strategies. Risk analysis calls for a multidisciplinary approach to piece together and integrate the numerous factors that influence disease transmission. The seven papers included in this volume of AJP present current primatological research as viewed through the prism of risk analysis. Issues such as interspecies disease transmission, public health, and conservation of endangered species are addressed, and risk analysis is put forward as a possible paradigm to promote understanding of infectious disease and its impact on nonhuman primate and human populations.