Conservation Of Natural Habitats Research Articles

6. Nordic Countries

In Chapter 2 of the Environmental Code, the main environmental legislation in Sweden, the general rules of consideration have been updated. Chapter 2, paragraph 5, and Chapter 15, paragraph 10, now explicitly contain the ‘waste hierarchy,’ which is the European Union’s (EU) approach to waste management. The waste hierarchy sets the following order of priority when managing waste: prevention, (preparing for) reuse, recycling, recovery, and disposal. As reported in the 2016 edition of this Yearbook, the hunting decision regarding wolves was previously not appealable to a court of law. The Supreme Administrative Court declared that the principle of effective judicial protection in relation to strict protection under EEC Directive 92/43 on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (Habitats Directive) requires that decisions regarding protected species can be brought to national courts. The Supreme Administrative Court, therefore, found the restriction of appeal in the hunting regulation to be in conflict with EU law.

The odonata community of a brazilian vereda: seasonal patterns, species diversity and rarity in a palm swamp environment

Studies concerning the occurrence of species and seasonality are of great importance for both the elucidation of species distribution and conservation of natural habitats. We performed a survey of Odonata species and studied their seasonality in an endemic endangered palm swamp (i.e. Veredas) environment of the Ecological Reserve of Clube de Caca e Pesca Itororo de Uberlândia, Southestern Brazil. Between July 2010 and June 2011, we recorded 31 species of five different families and 21 genera. The community was strongly seasonal, since 24 species occurred in the wet season, while ten occurred in both dry and wet season, and only two species occured only in the dry season. All Anisoptera species preferred lentic habitats, whereas seven of the 18 Zygopera species preferred lentic habitats and 11 species preferred lotic sites. The five Calopterygidae and Protoneuridae species preferred lotic habitats. The study site exhibits a great diversity of dragonflies and damselflies, which are important elements of the trophic chain in the Cerrado aquatic and neighboring land environments. This justifies the development of conservation actions in palm swamp areas, which are poorly known and threatened by the constant advance of urban, monoculture and pasture areas in Cerrado.

Diversity and composition of ground-dwelling beetle assemblages (Insecta: Coleoptera) in Rawdhat Khorim National Park, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Rawdhats are unique alluvial meadows that provide a major opportunity for conservation of biodiversity in the Arabian hyper-arid regions. This study investigated the diversity and composition of the ground-dwelling beetle assemblages in two locations within Rawdhat Khorim National Park, Saudi Arabia. Beetles were collected during 24-periods from November 2011 to October 2012 using pitfall traps. A total of 114 species, 96 genera and 22 families were identified. Four Tenebrionidae dominated the catch, Mesostena puncticollis Solier, Oxycara saudarabica Kaszab, Gonocephalum prolixum (Erichson) and Apentanodes arabicus (Kirchsberg). Although richness and abundance did not differ significantly between the locations, diversity and evenness were different. The beetle family abundance showed variations between the locations. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and the analysis of similarity (ANOSIM) showed a high dissimilarity degree in species composition. Scavengers occurred in higher abundance and richness in one location. Predators and herbivores occurred in higher abundances in the other location. This study suggests that scavengers can be used for monitoring the ecology integrity in xeric-lands. It revealed the difficulty of interpreting richness and diversity measures without a high species identification level and knowledge about feeding guilds. Our findings will assist in monitoring approaches for conservation of natural habitats in arid lands.

Comparison of soil microbial communities inhabiting vineyards and native sclerophyllous forests in central Chile.

Natural ecosystems provide services to agriculture such as pest control, soil nutrients, and key microbial components. These services and others in turn provide essential elements that fuel biomass productivity. Responsible agricultural management and conservation of natural habitats can enhance these ecosystem services. Vineyards are currently driving land-use changes in many Mediterranean ecosystems. These land-use changes could have important effects on the supporting ecosystems services related to the soil properties and the microbial communities associated with forests and vineyard soils. Here, we explore soil bacterial and fungal communities present in sclerophyllous forests and organic vineyards from three different wine growing areas in central Chile. We employed terminal restriction fragment length polymorphisms (T-RFLP) to describe the soil microbial communities inhabiting native forests and vineyards in central Chile. We found that the bacterial community changed between the sampled growing areas; however, the fungal community did not differ. At the local scale, our findings show that fungal communities differed between habitats because fungi species might be more sensitive to land-use change compared to bacterial species, as bacterial communities did not change between forests and vineyards. We discuss these findings based on the sensitivity of microbial communities to soil properties and land-use change. Finally, we focus our conclusions on the importance of naturally derived ecosystem services to vineyards.

Natural habitat does not mediate vertebrate seed predation as an ecosystem dis‐service to agriculture

Summary Spillover of beneficial organisms from natural habitats to croplands can improve agro‐ecosystem services, but wildlife can also negatively influence agricultural production. When managing agricultural landscapes to conserve biodiversity, we need to understand whether the availability of natural habitats increases ecosystem dis‐services such as vertebrate seed predation to avoid risking higher costs than benefits. We studied whether vertebrates and their impact in crop seed predation are related to the percentage of natural (chaparral) and semi‐natural habitat (planted forest with native and exotic trees) in an agricultural landscape of Israel. We selected 20 almond and 20 sunflower study sites within a landscape with varying percentages of natural (0–61%) and semi‐natural (0–70%) habitats within a 1000 m radius of their surroundings. We observed birds, trapped rodents (in almond), counted seeds and noted feeding marks to obtain seed predation rates, at each site. Within the almond crops, we physically excluded birds, rodents and both to determine their relative and combined influence on seed predation. Neither vertebrate abundance nor species richness was influenced by the percentage of natural habitat. However, bird species richness increased with increasing percentage of semi‐natural habitat. Seed predation across both crops was not influenced by natural or semi‐natural habitat but increased significantly with increasing abundance and species richness of birds. This was also reflected by the exclusions of birds, vertebrates and both to the almond crop, leading to lowest seed predation when both groups were excluded. Synthesis and applications. Natural or semi‐natural habitat did not influence the agro‐ecosystem dis‐service of seed predation by birds and rodents. Policymakers should consider promoting agri‐environment schemes that include the conservation of natural habitats and the management of semi‐natural habitats adjacent to cropland to enhance agro‐ecosystem services meditated by beneficial organisms such as natural pest enemies and pollinators without fearing increased vertebrate seed predation. In order to provide more detailed management recommendations tackling the reduction of vertebrate dis‐services, their feeding behaviour, metabolic needs, behaviour patterns and local abundances should be taken into account.

Microbial Diversity: Relevance and Relationship Between Environmental Conservation And Human Health

This work presents bibliographic data on the role and function of microbial diversity. The increasing use of probiotics and prebiotics foods has led to the studies on their actual functions in the human body. It is known that in the environment, microorganisms are extremely important in recycling of nutrients, balance of trophic chains, vital physiological activities in the plants and animals, as well as the conservation of natural habitats. In human food, these microscopic organisms contribute from flavoring products to the synthesis of antimicrobial substances and vitamins essential to living beings.

Insect community on Jurinea cyanoides (Asteraceae), a plant species protected under NATURA 2000

AbstractThe plant Jurinea cyanoides (L.) Reichenbach (Asteraceae), protected under the European Commission Directive on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (92/43/EEC), is critically endangered in Central Europe. The centre of its continuous range of distribution is in Ukraine and in a part of European Russia. Natural isolated populations have refugial distribution in the Czech Republic and Germany. Interactions of insects from different feeding guilds (i.e., phytophages, pollinators, parasitoids, predators) with J. cyanoides were studied in central Ukraine, Czech Republic and Germany. The insect community identified on J. cyanoides and differences in its composition on robust populations of plant in contrast to sparsely populated periphery of its range are discussed. Altogether 78 species belonging to six orders (Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Neuroptera) were recorded. Larvae of the pyralid moth (genus Dioryctria), tephritid fruit flies (Acanthiophilus helianthi), and several polyphagous Heteroptera species are identified as main taxa feeding on inflorescences and seeds of J. cyanoides, with a potential to reduce the plant’s sexual reproduction. The impact of phytophagous insects is, however, considered only a secondary reason for the decline of the Czech populations of J. cyanoides on which a fairly low number of insect species were recorded in comparison with Ukraine and Germany; habitat loss and inbreeding effect are probably major negative factors. Several new host plant-insect and host-parasitoid associations are reported for insects on J. cyanoides.

Soybean crops may benefit from forest pollinators

Increasing evidence indicates that pollinator diversity and pollination services are highly threatened by the destruction and fragmentation of natural habitats and the intensification of agricultural landscapes. Here we analyze the bee visiting ensemble on soybean flowers and the effects of pollinator visits on soybean reproductive success, within a fragmented Chaco forest landscape embedded in a soybean matrix in central Argentina. We assessed visitation rates in relation to distance from the forest (5, 50 and 100m) compared soybean bee assemblages with those on wild flowers in the nearby forest fragments, and carried out an exclosure experiment in order to assess the contribution of insect visits to soybean reproductive success. We also analyzed the relationship between visitor body size and the distance from the forest to the visited flower. Five species belonging to two families of bees were observed visiting soybean flowers. The bee species observed on soybean were well represented in the forest, and Apis mellifera was the most abundant species, visiting soybean flowers at all studied distances from the forest. Instead, wild visitors displayed a turnover of species throughout those distances, with smaller species being restricted to the forest proximity and replaced by larger ones toward the interior of the crop. Total visitation rates were significantly and negatively affected by distance to the forest. All plant productivity variables measured in the exclosure experiments were significantly improved in exposed flowers, duplicating the values observed without pollinators. The present study offers preliminary evidence linking forest proximity to higher visitation rates and presence of wild pollinators on soybean flowers thus providing for the first time, evidence of the forest role as pollinator donor for the soybean crop. It also shows that pollinator activity matters for this crop, leading to increased soybean yield. Further research on this topic is necessary in order to provide informed guidelines to enhance soybean production while simultaneously promoting natural habitat conservation.

The EU Habitats Directive and wolf conservation and management on the Iberian Peninsula: a legal perspective

The focus of this legal paper is on the implications of the EU Directive on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (Habitats Directive) for wolf (Canis lupus) conservation and management in Portugal and Spain. It addresses the (potential) relevance of both the area protection and the generic species protection rules from the Directive. Special attention is paid to legal issues raised by the range expansion of the northwest Iberian wolf population beyond the Duero River (both south and east), the immigration of wolves from France, the looming extinction of the Sierra Morena population, and the need for transboundary cooperation.

Remote sensing for mapping natural habitats and their conservation status – New opportunities and challenges

Safeguarding the diversity of natural and semi-natural habitats in Europe is one of the aims set out by the Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora) and one of the targets of the European 2020 Biodiversity Strategy, and is to be accomplished by maintaining a favourable conservation status. To reach this aim a high-level understanding of the distribution and conditions of these habitats is needed. Remote sensing can considerably contribute to habitat mapping and their observation over time. Several European projects and a large number of scientific studies have addressed the issue of mapping and monitoring natural habitats via remote sensing and the deriving of indicators on their conservation status. The multitude of utilized remote sensing sensors and applied methods used in these studies, however, impede a common understanding of what is achievable with current state-of-the-art technologies. The aim of this paper is to provide a synthesis on what is currently feasible in terms of detection and monitoring of natural and semi-natural habitats with remote sensing. To focus this endeavour, we concentrate on those studies aimed at direct mapping of individual habitat types or discriminating between different types of habitats occurring in relatively large, spatially contiguous units. By this we uncover the potential of remote sensing to better understand the distribution of habitats and the assessment of their conservation status in Europe.

Формирование лесных фитоценозов правобережья реки Волги

The coastal forests, presented by valuable deciduous and coniferous forests, grow in the northeastern and eastern parts of the Volga region of the Republic of Tatarstan, skirting the high right bank of the Volga River. They contribute to the maintenance of biological diversity in nature. The study of the formation of coastal forest phytocenoses, their species diversity and the modern state is now urgent work, and development activities for the conservation of natural habitats of plants, improve the sustainability of forest ecosystems are perspective direction. According to research of the forests of the right bank of the river Volga, we present the structure of coastal forest ecosystems. The association of forest ecosystems to the various elements of the relief was installed. The types of soil and litter were presented. The estimation of α-diversity of vascular herbaceous plants and ß-diversity of the studied forest ecosystems were reported. The largest number of species of vascular plants in coastal forests are: oak plant communities; a second group includes birch plants, pine and willow; the third group - the lime and larch; the fourth group - maple plant communitie. The ß-diversity index (Whittaker’s index) of plants in the studied forests varies between 2.2-6.8. The Jaccard coefficient of floristic similarity between forest ecosystems varies from 0.01 to 0.30, which confirms the diversity of generated by coastal forest ecosystems. The greatest diversity of plants was found in forests of ash and mixed grass, mixed grass willow, oak and lime-grove, maple, ash and mixed grass larches, birch wood. The forestry activities in coastal areas should be aimed at creating productive, sustainable forest ecosystems with a rich biodiversity of flora and fauna.

Can ecological engineering restore Mediterranean rangeland after intensive cultivation? A large-scale experiment in southern France

Ecological restoration has been identified as one of the possible ways to replace biodiversity loss. While ecological engineering methods can successfully restore some ecosystem attributes, restoration is generally incomplete, mainly due to lack of target species propagule dispersal, unsuitable abiotic conditions and negative biotic interactions, especially after intensive cultivation. How best to restore reference ecosystems is therefore a vital research objective, not only on a small experimental scale but also on a large scale. This study aimed to determine which ecological engineering techniques are the most suitable for large-scale restoration of a low-productive species-rich ecosystem after intensive cultivation. Experiments were carried out at La Crau in southern France, within a 357ha land rehabilitation project whose aim was to recreate a herbaceous sheep-grazed habitat. We investigated: (i) covering species seeding, (ii) topsoil removal, (iii) hay transfer, and (iv) soil transfer as methods to restore a steppe plant community in this rehabilitated area, using the last remaining French Mediterranean steppe as a reference ecosystem. Species-richness, diversity and composition of vascular plant communities were monitored over three years. The rehabilitation made it possible to recover a large area dominated by grasses but with vegetation different from that of the steppe. Hay transfer was successful in transferring some target species, but the number of target species did not significantly increase by the end of the third year. Covering species seeding seemed to provide a suitable area for target species colonization, but probable competition with grasses needs to be monitored. The greatest similarity in richness, diversity, and composition with the reference ecosystem was obtained with topsoil removal and soil transfer, which made it possible to recover the species-richness and, to some extent, the composition of the steppe. Our findings show that current ecological restoration and ecological engineering techniques can lead to at least partial restoration of some ecosystem attributes. However, they also underline the importance of in situ conservation of natural habitats rather than restoring them after their destruction.

Environmental Thinking and Cultural Values: a Reflection on Environmental Globalisation and the Mediterranean Culture

Abstract Europe and especially the Mediterranean are quite a good example, not only of the effects of the economic globalisation, but also of how different forms of globalisation have affected cultural and environmental values. The historical development in the understanding of the relationships between man and nature shows an important shift in Europe, and especially the Mediterranean from a first phase starting around the fourteenth century, dominated by appreciation of cultural landscapes shaped by man, to a different phase, starting in the late nineteenth century and continuing today, where natural landscapes became more important. In the second half of the twentieth century, the attention to sustainable development and environmental conservation favoured conservation of natural habitats and associated biodiversity, often criticising the cultural landscapes previously appreciated. These views, originating mostly in North America and in central Europe, have profoundly affected the way landscape is managed and perceived today, with a shift in attention from cultural landscapes towards natural landscapes. Today, there is an attempt to safeguard and make the most of these landscapes, but nature conservation poses difficulties, creating a conflict based on a different set of values for the management of these areas.

Eco-Cultural Tourism: A Tool for Environmental, Cultural and Economic Sustainability (A Case Study of Darap Village, West Sikkim)

Eco-cultural tourism is a concept where both ecological and cultural aspects of a landscape are combined together creating a tourist paradise. It is travel to destinations where both cultural and natural endowments are the prime attractions and thereby considered to be a potential strategy to support conservation of natural habitats along with economic sustainability particularly to indigenous communities. North Eastern Region of India is one of the most mesmerizing regions of the Indian subcontinent that mirrors a perfect blending of life, culture and ecology. It is a relatively unexplored and unique area in terms of both ecology and cultural diversity and is characterized by the abundance of natural endowments; pristine forests with a huge diversity of flora and fauna, enchanting hills, fast flowing streams and meandering rivers, cascading waterfalls, snowcapped mountain ranges etc. Approximately there are 65 indigenous tribes in the region along with a host of sub-tribes having their own distinctive cultures, customs and traditions preserved till today. This article tries to argue through a case study of village tourism at Darap in West Sikkim that eco-cultural tourism is a potent force for the overall economic, social and cultural development as well biodiversity conservation in the region.

The Appropriate Impact Assessment and Authorisation Requirements of Plans and Projects likely to have significant impacts on Natura 2000 sites

In 1979 the EU enacted the Birds Protection Directive, and in 1992 a sister directive, Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (the “Habitats Directive”). In addition, a clear commitment to halting the loss of biodiversity in the EU has been made in the Commission’s Communication on Halting the Loss of Biodiversity by 2010 - and Beyond. The aim of this article is to shed a light on the procedural requirements laid down under Article 6(3) and (4) of the Habitats Directive, a key provision for implementing the EU’s system of protecting and preserving biological diversity in the Member States. The contribution examines the assessment procedure and the authorisation scheme. It also takes a look at the possibility for the Member States to authorise a plan or a project adversely affecting the integrity of a protected site. Furthermore, the article examines the relationship between the different impact studies provided for under EU environmental law.

An update on the distribution in mainland Portugal of bryophytes of the European Habitats Directive

Portugal, as part of the Iberian Peninsula, is one of the floristically richest areas of the European Continent, largely due to the heterogeneity of environmental conditions. The north and north-western part of this area belongs to the Eurosiberian region, and the remaining part is included in the Mediterranean region. In 1992, the European Economic Community presented the directive 92/43/EEC ‘Habitats Directive’ on the conservation of natural habitats and their fauna and flora which represents the cornerstone of Europe’s nature conservation (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm). Several hundred animals and plant species including bryophytes that are considered of community interest are listed as endangered, vulnerable, rare, or endemic in the European territory of the member states. The main objective of this Directive is ‘to promote the protection and maintenance of biodiversity’.

Loss of Genetic Diversity at an MHC Locus in the Endangered Tokyo BitterlingTanakia tanago(Teleostei: Cyprinidae)

Genetic diversity at a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II B gene was examined for two wild and three captive populations of the endangered Tokyo bitterling Tanakia tanago. A specific primer set was first developed to amplify the MHC II B exon 2 locus. Using single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) and sequencing analysis, 16 DAB3 alleles were detected with 56 nucleotide substitutions in the 276-bp region. In the putative antigen-binding sites of exon 2, the rate of nonsynonymous substitutions was significantly higher than that of synonymous substitutions (dN/dS = 2.79), indicating positive selection on the retention of polymorphism. The population from the Handa Natural Habitat Conservation Area and that from the Tone River system exhibited low variation (one and three alleles, respectively), whereas the captive population that originated from a mix of three distinct populations had the highest amounts of variation (14 alleles). The levels of heterozygosity at the MHC varied considerably among populations and showed significant correlations with those at putative neutral microsatellite markers, suggesting that genetic drift following a bottleneck has affected MHC variability in some populations. Comparisons between endangered and non-endangered fish species in previous reports and the present results indicate that the number of MHC alleles per population is on average 70% lower in endangered species than non-endangered species. Considering the functional consequence of this locus, attention should be paid to captive and wild endangered fish populations in terms of further loss of MHC alleles.

Loss of European Dry Heaths in NW Spain: A Case Study

Natural habitats are continuing to deteriorate in Europe with an increasing number of wild species which are also seriously threatened. Consequently, a coherent European ecological network (Natura 2000) for conservation of natural habitats and the wild fauna and flora (Council Directive 92/43/EEC) was created. Even so, there is currently no standardized methodology for surveillance and assessment of habitats, a lack that it is particularly problematic for those habitats occupying large areas (heathlands, forests, dunes, wetlands) and which require a great deal of effort to be monitored. In this paper we evaluate the changes affecting the European dry heaths (Nat-2000 4030) from the SCI Os Ancares–O Courel (Galicia, NW Spain) during the past decade. High-resolution aerial imagery analyses and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were used. Losses of more than 7,000 ha (20.3%) of European dry heaths were computed during the 2003–2011 period in the SCI Os Ancares–O Courel, and also an increase of the degree of fragmentation was demonstrated for this habitat. Paradoxically, major impacts (afforestations, pasturelands) were financed by agri-environmental funds from the EU. Rather than promote biodiversity, these activities have provoked serious damages in this habitat of community interest, which is in complete opposition to the objectives of protection involved in the declaration of the SCI Os Ancares–O Courel.

Rozwój i charakterystyka sieci Natura 2000 na Lubelszczyźnie / Developing of the network of Natura 2000 in the Lublin Region

European Ecological Network Natura 2000 is a system of protection of threatened components of biodiversity in the EU. The legal basis for the creation of the Natura 2000 network is Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 2 April 1979 on the conservation of wild birds (Birds Directive) and Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and wild fauna and flora (Habitats Directive). Natura 2000 sites are the youngest form of nature conservation in Poland. The author presents developing and geographical location of the Natura 2000 network in the Lublin Region. Against the background of Poland, the Lublin Region has the most – 123 – designated Natura 2000 sites: 100 habitat sites and 23 birds sites. These areas are extremely diverse in terms of location, area and character. Location of Natura 2000 in the Lublin Region is uneven. Their position refers in large part to a pre-existing network of the protected areas. Only 5 habitat sites and 23 bird sites designated in areas not covered so far areal forms of nature conservation. None of Lublin Natura 2000 areas has, as required by law, protection plans, for the eight habitat sites there are created conservation work plans. Also missing is good, kept up to map, the entire Natura 2000 network in Poland and the Lublin Region. The process of creating the Natura 2000 network in Poland is still ongoing. To meet the Natura 2000, its role of protection of species and habitat conservation plans are needed and their consistent implementation, taking into account the investment process and building public support for the existence and functioning of the newest forms of nature conservation in our country.

Spatial distribution of marine benthic habitats in the Estonian coastal sea, northeastern Baltic Sea

INTRODUCTION Annex I of the Habitat Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora) defines the habitat types of higher importance and in need of conservation within Europe. Together with the Birds Directive this directive forms a solid base for the European nature conservation policy and the Natura 2000 network. In order to implement the requirements of the directive and to resolve the existing needs for local conservation purposes, a benthic habitat classification system EBHAB (Eastern Baltic marine benthic HABitats) was developed in the frame of the multinational EU LIFE project 'Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Baltic Sea (Baltic MPAs)'. In the current study a detailed inventory of the EBHAB habitat classes was performed within six study areas covering the most valuable nearshore marine areas and including several protected areas, i.e. the Natura 2000 areas in the Estonian coastal range. In general, prior to this inventory the knowledge on the distribution of habitats and associated biota in the coastal areas was very poor including only a few publications each containing a handful sampling sites only (e.g. Martin, 2000; Kotta & Orav, 2001; Kotta et al., 2008, Kovtun et al., 2009). Moreover, the published background information was very scattered and owing to differences in methodologies there was no way to systematize such knowledge. Thus, there was a need to examine the species composition and identify typical communities within their environment. The current inventory allowed us for the first time (1) to summarize the range of large-scale variability of the studied habitats in terms of benthic biodiversity, species composition, and dominance structure; (2) to provide a knowledge base for follow-on biological and ecological studies; and (3) thus, to provide important information for managing our marine resources. MATERIAL AND METHODS Study area Altogether six areas representing various environmental and climatic conditions in the northeastern Baltic Sea were studied in detail with the aim of classifying the observed benthic habitats according to the recently established EBHAB classes (Fig. 1). An overview of the study areas is given below. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Eastern and western Gulf of Finland areas The average depth of the Gulf of Finland is 37 m and the maximum depth 123 m. The coastal slope is quite steep and depths reach over 30 m in all bays of the study area. Sand, silt, or sandy clay bottoms dominate in deeper areas, boulders and stones prevail near the coast. The coastline is diverse and disjuncted by peninsulas, many small islands occur in the area. The eastern gulf receives runoff from a huge drainage area and the western gulf is a direct continuation of the Baltic Proper. Therefore the gulf has a permanent east-west gradient of salinity. The salinity range of the study area is 4.5-6.2. The area is strongly influenced by diffuse and point-source nutrient loads. West-Estonian Archipelago Sea The area comprises shallow bays with many small islets and mudflats. The average depth of the area is less than 4 m with the maximum close to 20 m. The bottom morphology of the area is flat, with gentle slopes towards deeps. The whole water basin is semi-exposed. Sand and sandy clay sediments prevail in the entire area of the archipelago. Due to the shallowness and clayey sediments already moderate winds result in strong resuspension of bottom sediments and poor underwater light conditions. Salinity varies from 0 to 7, being the lowest in the estuary of the Kasari River in the eastern part of the area and around 6-7 in the western, open-sea area. Haapsalu and Matsalu bays are the most eutrophied bays within the West-Estonian Archipelago Sea. Western Saaremaa Island Similarly to the previous study area this area consists of small shallow bays with many scattered islets. …