Forest Conservation Research Articles

Introducing the inaugural issue of Forests Monitor: an international peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal

On behalf of our editors and scientific board members, we are delighted to welcome you to the inaugural issue of Forests Monitor. Launching a new journal dedicated to addressing pressing challenges in academic publishing is a significant endeavor, and we would like to share the purpose and focus of Forests Monitor, as well as the unique benefits it offers to readers, reviewers, and prospective authors. The mission of Forests Monitor is to accelerate scientific and practical discourse on the applied science of multifunctional forest ecosystems. By providing a robust platform for exchanging ideas supported by a rigorous peer-review process, we aim to contribute meaningfully to advancing forest management and governance. Our vision for Forests Monitor is to become a premier applied scientific journal that bridges forest ecology and conservation, forest management and planning, and forest policy and economics—all under one umbrella. Forests Monitor seeks to foster scientific development and promote meaningful dialogue by publishing original research articles, comprehensive reviews, thought-provoking opinion pieces, forest perspectives, and book reviews related to multifunctional forest ecosystems. This editorial also summarizes the contributions included in our inaugural issue, where we published five articles, including two research papers and three perspectives on forestry. The contributions address a diverse range of topics across the globe, such as Forest Stewards Guild position statement on climate-smart forestry, forest governance in the Nordic region, defining and monitoring forest disturbances and damages, methods for tracking forest pests in the United States, and the role of retention border zones in enhancing broadleaf habitats within production forests in Sweden. In this editorial, we also want to highlight how you can support our grassroot mission.

Analysis of Suitable Cultivation Sites for Gastrodia elata Using GIS: A Comparison of Various Classification Methods

Gastrodia elata has been a valuable medicinal resource in the East for approximately 3000 years. In South Korea, G. elata is cultivated in open-fields or greenhouses near residential areas. However, due to severe continuous damage, cultivation sites need to be frequently relocated, leading to a shortage of available cultivation areas. Alternatively, farmers are focusing on mountain cultivation. This study analyzed suitable cultivation sites for G. elata in mountainous areas using a geographic information system (GIS) and applied various classification methods to identify their characteristics and similarities. The analysis showed that the Natural Breaks (Jenks) classification method maximized the differences between grades, whereas the Quantile method reclassified the area of suitable sites to a relatively high proportion. In contrast, the Equal Interval method reclassified the areas of suitable and unsuitable sites to a lower proportion, whereas the Geometric Interval method best demonstrated extreme-temperature regions as unsuitable sites. Among the classification methods, the Natural Breaks (Jenks) and Geometric Interval methods yielded the most similar results. These findings provide critical methodological outcomes for G. elata cultivation and sustainable agriculture and forestry. Future empirical research and the application of climate change scenarios are necessary to enhance the sustainability of the G. elata cultivation industry.

Understory cultivation of medicinal plants promotes sustainable forestry development

Understory cultivation of medicinal plants promotes sustainable forestry development

A critical review of exploring the recent trends and technological advancements in forest biomass estimation

Biomass estimation is pivotal in understanding and managing global carbon stocks, offering vital insights into climate change and environmental ecology. It serves as a critical tool for evaluating carbon sequestration potential, a natural mechanism for regulating atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. Accurate estimation of forest biomass not only aids in quantifying carbon stocks but also provides a basis for sustainable forest management, conservation efforts, and policymaking to mitigate climate change impacts. This article provides a comprehensive review of various biomass estimation methods, including ground-based measurements, remote sensing technologies, and hybrid approaches. Each method's strengths, limitations, and practical applications are critically examined, highlighting their suitability for different spatial scales and ecological contexts. Traditional methods, while precise at small scales, are often labour-intensive and limited in coverage. In contrast, remote sensing technologies such as LiDAR, RADAR, and hyperspectral imaging have revolutionized biomass estimation by enabling large-scale and high-resolution assessments. Additionally, recent advancements in machine learning, data fusion, and satellite-based monitoring systems are transforming the field, offering unprecedented accuracy and efficiency. By presenting these trends and innovations, this article provides valuable insights for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers, emphasizing the importance of integrating advanced technologies into biomass estimation for sustainable development and climate resilience.

Assessment of forest fragmentation and ecological dynamics in Western Himalayan Region over three decades (1990-2020).

A spatial assessment of temporal forest cover changes is essential for effective forest conservation and management practices. This study analyzes changes in forest cover and the evolution of forest spatial configuration using Landsat satellite imagery over the past three decades (1990-2020) in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), Pakistan. To achieve the objectives, landscape metrics and forest fragmentation analyses were applied. Additionally, a pattern-based spatial analysis was conducted to examine forest cover changes in the study area. Overall, the forest cover change from 1990 to 2020 was 74 km2 (- 1.75%), with an average annual forest cover change rate of - 2.5 km2 (- 0.06%) for the entire study period. A gradual decline in forest cover was observed between 1990 and 2020, with the most significant decline of - 29.92 km2 from 2000 to 2010. The forest fragmentation analysis reveals that the core forest areas (> 500 acres) are increasingly being divided into smaller (< 250 acres) and medium-sized (250-500 acres) patches. Landscape metrics at the class level show that, with a few exceptions, the overall forests in AJK remain connected and aggregated. Based on forest cover and ecoregions in the region, the pattern-based spatial and dissimilarity analysis identifies forest hotspots (areas of gains or losses) and clusters. To conserve, restore, and monitor the forests in the study area, decision-making and policy-making institutions can establish conservation priorities. They can also implement a more robust incentive-based UN-REDD + mechanism. This would involve formulating management strategies aimed at curbing forest loss and reducing forest degradation.

Adverse Effects of Human Activities on Forest Reserves in Ghana: Lessons of Experience from the Yenku Forest Reserve in the Central Region

This study examines the threat posed to sustainable forest management of human activities of communities within the Yenku Forest Reserve in the Central Region of Ghana. The reserve was identified for the study because it is the largest forest reserve has the highest number of fringe communities and is one of the most degraded forest reserve in the Winneba Forest District. Da, and observations and semi-structured were deployed for soliciting series of individual semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and observations were deployed to solicit data from residents within the fringe communities of the Yenku forest reserve. The findings of the study are that farming, charcoal burning, hunting, and harvesting of non-timber forest products are the major human activities and constitute the livelihood and survival of the fringe communities. The consequence of these human activities is the continuous degradation of the land, a decline of soil fertility, soil erosion, deforestation, and forest degradation, wildfires, and depletion of wildlife. The interviewees reported that they have little or no role to play when the issue of sustainability comes up in the management of the Yenku Forest Reserve. It emerged from the study findings that traditional authorities within the fringe communities and all relevant stakeholders needed to be actively engaged in the making of decisions regarding the Yenku forest reserve so as to integrate local peoples’ knowledge and livelihood objectives and strategies into the choices made and to improve the management of forest resources.

Half of land use carbon emissions in Southeast Asia can be mitigated through peat swamp forest and mangrove conservation and restoration

Southeast Asia (SEA) contributes approximately one-third of global land-use change carbon emissions, a substantial yet highly uncertain part of which is from anthropogenically-modified peat swamp forests (PSFs) and mangroves. Here, we report that between 2001–2022 land-use change impacting PSFs and mangroves in SEA generate approximately 691.8±97.2 teragrams of CO2 equivalent emissions annually (TgCO2eyr−1) or 48% of region’s land-use change emissions, and carbon removal through secondary regrowth of −16.3 ± 2.0 TgCO2eyr−1. Indonesia (73%), Malaysia (14%), Myanmar (7%), and Vietnam (2%) combined accounted for over 90% of regional emissions from these sources. Consequently, great potential exists for emissions reduction through PSFs and mangroves conservation. Moreover, restoring degraded PSFs and mangroves could provide an additional annual mitigation potential of 94.4 ± 7.4 TgCO2eyr−1. Although peatlands and mangroves occupy only 5.4% of SEA land area, restoring and protecting these carbon-dense ecosystems can contribute substantially to climate change mitigation, while maintaining valuable ecosystem services, livelihoods and biodiversity.

Forest Stem Extraction and Modeling (FoSEM): A LiDAR-Based Framework for Accurate Tree Stem Extraction and Modeling in Radiata Pine Plantations

Accurate characterization of tree stems is critical for assessing commercial forest health, estimating merchantable timber volume, and informing sustainable value management strategies. Conventional ground-based manual measurements, although precise, are labor-intensive and impractical at large scales, while remote sensing approaches using satellite or UAV imagery often lack the spatial resolution needed to capture individual tree attributes in complex forest environments. To address these challenges, this study provides a significant contribution by introducing a large-scale dataset encompassing 40 plots in Western Australia (WA) with varying tree densities, derived from Hovermap LiDAR acquisitions and destructive sampling. The dataset includes parameters such as plot and tree identifiers, DBH, tree height, stem length, section lengths, and detailed diameter measurements (e.g., DiaMin, DiaMax, DiaMean) across various heights, enabling precise ground-truth calibration and validation. Based on this dataset, we present the Forest Stem Extraction and Modeling (FoSEM) framework, a LiDAR-driven methodology that efficiently and reliably models individual tree stems from dense 3D point clouds. FoSEM integrates ground segmentation, height normalization, and K-means clustering at a predefined elevation to isolate stem cores. It then applies circle fitting to capture cross-sectional geometry and employs MLESAC-based cylinder fitting for robust stem delineation. Experimental evaluations conducted across various radiata pine plots of varying complexity demonstrate that FoSEM consistently achieves high accuracy, with a DBH RMSE of 1.19 cm (rRMSE = 4.67%) and a height RMSE of 1.00 m (rRMSE = 4.24%). These results surpass those of existing methods and highlight FoSEM’s adaptability to heterogeneous stand conditions. By providing both a robust method and an extensive dataset, this work advances the state of the art in LiDAR-based forest inventory, enabling more efficient and accurate tree-level assessments in support of sustainable forest management.

Additionality in Theoretical von Thünenian Models of Deforestation and Conservation Payments

Simple theoretical von Thünenian models of deforestation and agricultural expansion have been extensively studied in the literature but have not yet been adapted to reflect contemporary conservation paradigms, such as the emergence of REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) initiatives, related payments for forest conservation, and payments for ecosystem services (PES) more broadly. We revisit Angelsen’s 1999 seminal adaptation of the 1826 von Thünenian model of deforestation and agricultural expansion and propose a “toy model” to incorporate the potential revenues from conservation payments and build on the concept of additionality in the payments for environmental services literature. As theorized, our extended model illustrates how such payments are more effective when they approach the profit margins of geographically peripherical crops that replace the forest. Moreover, it illustrates how conservation payments influence the agricultural frontier while quantifying the avoided deforestation area.

Integrating Indigenous Knowledge into Sustainable Forest Management for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies: Case from Southern Slopes of Mount Slamet, Indonesia

Rural communities near forests are highly vulnerable to climate change due to frequent natural disasters and extreme weather. This study investigated local wisdom in forest management as a strategy to address climate challenges. Conducted in April–May 2024 on the southern slopes of Mount Slamet, Central Java (i.e., Gununglurah, Sokawera, and Sunyalangu Villages), the research used a participatory learning action approach and descriptive-quantitative analysis based on interpretive and critical sociology. Key findings highlight three aspects of community-based forest management: spatial categorization of forests into sacred conservation forests (tabet), protected forests in steep areas, and production forests managed through agroforestry; temporal scheduling based on the traditional pranatamangsa seasonal calendar; and plant selection for production, conservation, and spiritual purposes. These practices reflect a deep socio-cultural connection to forests and provide a foundation for integrating traditional wisdom with modern management methods. Legal recognition is essential to protect the rights of indigenous communities and their forest management systems, ensuring that these practices contribute to sustainable forest management and effective climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.

A Simple Board Game for Modeling the System Dynamics of Deforestation

This article explores the dynamics of deforestation and reforestation through a simplified board game. Motivated by the urgent need to understand the impact of deforestation on biodiversity and climate, the study employs the Lotka-Volterra equations as a theoretical foundation to guide the game’s mechanics. Two variants of the game were tested, revealing patterns that closely resemble predicted outcomes of rapid forest decline as well as forest recovery and oscillations between deforestation and recovery. While the initial findings are promising, indicating that the game successfully illustrates these ecological dynamics, further investigation is needed to statistically validate the observations. The author encourages collaboration and data sharing among players to build a robust dataset for future analysis. Ultimately, the game aims to enhance awareness of forest conservation issues and contribute to educational strategies that emphasize the importance of sustainable forestry practices.

Anthropogenic Impacts on Bark and Ambrosia Beetle Assemblages in Tropical Montane Forest in Northern Borneo

Anthropogenic disturbances, such as forest conversion, have a profound impact on species distributions and biodiversity in tropical forests. This study aimed to determine the diversity and distribution of bark and ambrosia beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae and Platypodinae) across three forest types: Primary Forest (PF), Disturbed Forest (DF), and Rubber Plantation (RP) in southern Sabah, Malaysia. We analyzed biweekly data obtained from ethanol-baited traps over three years, from April 2017 to May 2020, which included 7257 individuals from 154 species. The dominant species remained the same across all forest types. However, species composition was highly stochastic and unpredictable between forest types. The abundance and number of species were highest in RP but lowest in DF. Indigenous forest use in DF mostly for fuel likely reduced the resources for the beetles. Open canopy structure in RP probably increased the number of flying beetles. Although adjacent to PF, RP displayed a distinct species composition predominantly associated with rubber trees. These findings underscore the anthropogenic impact on beetle assemblages due to forest use and emphasize the need for sustainable forest management practices to prevent biodiversity loss and maintain ecosystem stability.

Study on the production of essential oil and its process for forest satoyama conservation and local revitalization

Study on the production of essential oil and its process for forest satoyama conservation and local revitalization

Sustainability translated: evolution of Sustainability Goals in Finnish Forest Policy (1990–2020)

ABSTRACT Forests contribute significantly to human well-being and mitigation of the effects of several global challenges. Meanwhile, the utilisation of forests influences the dynamics and ecosystem functions of forests. It was not until the beginning of the 1990s, when the concept of sustainable forest use became actively developed. Based on document analysis and qualitative expert interviews, this study analyses how sustainability has been translated into policy goals, and how those goals have been transformed into policy means. During the study period from 1990 to 2020, the goals evolved alongside the international developments. Therefore, the policy means were adjusted, and some new features introduced. Information provision for forest owners is central in developing coherent forest policy. The challenge of Finnish forest policy is that timber extraction and environmental protection have been presented as equal goals, while timber extraction has been prioritised in practice. This has allowed the prioritisation of short-term economic gains for the forest sector and national economy instead of the endorsement of the long-term societal benefits, which relate to the status of the nature, but also to the forest-related livelihoods.

Forest biomass for bioenergy as a tool to mitigate climate change: Implications for sustainable forest management in eastern Canada

Bioenergy produced from residual forest biomass can replace fossil fuels, and its contribution is essential to energy transition. However, its supply costs and selling value hardly ensure its profitability, so it has difficulty competing with other energy sources. In addition, concerns persist about the ecological impacts of forest bioenergy, particularly regarding the carbon cycle, biodiversity and site productivity. Our objective is to identify ways of facilitating the development of the forest bioenergy sector within the sustainable forest management framework of eastern Canada. We reviewed the literature to address the role of forest biomass for bioenergy from an operational, silvicultural and ecological perspective. It emerged that forest bioenergy represents an opportunity for the development of the forestry sector. However, the specifications of the forest biomass to be harvested need to be clarified in order to harmonize its mobilization within the existing industrial ecosystem, while maintaining the ecological functions of forest ecosystems. Integrating biomass harvesting with silvicultural and forest management activities is a key element for developing profitable forest bioenergy business plans.

Household level fuelwood use and carbon dioxide emissions in Delanta district, Northeastern Ethiopia

IntroductionEthiopian rural households primarily rely on fuelwood as their main energy Q7 source, yet the country lacks precise data on fuelwood harvesting and its economic significance. Consequently, there is limited understanding of CO2 emissions resulting from fuelwood use.MethodsThis study aimed to estimate the annual amount of fuelwood collected and the associated CO2 and carbon (C) emissions. Using simple random sampling for household selection, data were analyzed with Excel and Stata.ResultsThe results reveal that fuelwood dependency is a major driver of deforestation and CO2 emissions, with households consuming approximately 2,725 kg of firewood and 26 kg of charcoal annually. Each household also extracts an average of 3,909.3 kg of firewood and 516.5 kg of charcoal annually for sale. Among sampled households, fuelwood constitutes 904,261 kg of energy, with 51% used for household consumption and 96% allocated for income generation. The inefficient burning of this fuel results in significant emissions, adding 974,000 kg of CO2 or 265,600 kg of carbon annually to the household carbon footprint. On average, each household emits 7,740 kg of CO2 and 1,960 kg of carbon per year.DiscussionThe study emphasizes that, while fuelwood plays a critical role in household energy and income, its unsustainable use accelerates emissions and deforestation. To mitigate these effects, the adoption of alternative energy sources like electricity and forest conservation through local plantations is essential for climate resilience.

Soil Comprehensive Fertility Changes in Response to Stand Age and Initial Planting Density of Long-Term Spacing Trials of Chinese Fir Plantations

The growing demand for wood products and ecosystem services in Chinese fir plantations has led to longer rotation ages and density control practices, raising concerns about their impact on soil fertility. This study assessed soil fertility of Chinese fir plantations in Fujian, Jiangxi, and Sichuan Provinces using the Nemerow index. The effects of stand age and initial planting density on soil fertility were analyzed using statistical models. In Fujian and Jiangxi, soil fertility was significantly higher at 11 and 30 years than at 5 and 25 years, while in Sichuan, it was higher at 25 and 30 years than at 5 and 11 years. In Fujian, soil fertility was higher at 6667 trees ha⁻2 than at 1667 trees ha⁻2. No significant differences were observed in Jiangxi, while in Sichuan, soil fertility at 6667 trees ha⁻2 was significantly higher than at 5000 and 1667 trees ha⁻2, and soil fertility at 10,000 trees ha⁻2 exceeded that at 1667 trees ha⁻2. Soil fertility typically increased with stand age, especially in Fujian and Sichuan. Soil fertility also increased with initial planting density, especially in Jiangxi and Sichuan. A structural equation model (SEM) explained 88% of the variance in soil fertility, with stand age directly affecting soil fertility and soil organic matter mediating the effects of stand age and planting density. These findings suggest that adjusting rotation age and planting density could help improve soil fertility, offering practical implications for sustainable forest management in Chinese fir plantations.

Analysis of Wood Density to Compare the Amount of Accumulated Carbon Dioxide in the Stems of Selected Non-Native Tree Species in Poland

One of the priorities in European policy is the greater use of wood. In this context, it is important to know the total amount of CO2 absorbed by the tree and accumulated in the wood. In the timber industry, butt logs are mainly processed. The aim of this study is to analyze diameter at breast height (DBH), wood density (WD), and the amount of CO2 in grand fir (GF), Douglas fir (DF), northern red oak (NRO), and black locust (BL) wood. The DBH and bark thickness were measured, and cores were taken to study WD and calculate the amount of CO2. Analyses were conducted in three age classes of trees. It was found that in the youngest age class, DF had a significantly larger DBH compared to NRO and BL, and GF had a significantly larger DBH compared to NRO. The wood density of coniferous species was significantly lower compared to broadleaved species. DF absorbed the most CO2. In Class III, DF had significantly larger DBH and significantly lower wood density compared to NRO and BL. DF absorbed significantly more CO2 compared to NRO. In Classes IV and V, DF had larger DBH compared to NRO and lower wood density. The amount of CO2 absorbed by both species was similar. Taking into account the amount of absorbed CO2, the durability of the wood, and aspects related to sustainable forest management of the four studied non-native tree species, Douglas fir seems to be the best choice for cultivation in Polish forests.

Soil Aggregation, Aggregate Stability, and Associated Soil Organic Carbon in Huron Mountains Forests, Michigan, USA

Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a critical role in regulating the global carbon (C) cycle, with forest soils serving as significant C sinks. Soil aggregate stability and the distribution of SOC in different aggregate fractions would be affected by different forest types. In this study, we investigate the distribution and dynamics of SOC within different soil aggregate fractions across three main forest types in the Huron Mountains, Michigan, USA: white birch–eastern hemlock mixed forest, eastern-hemlock-dominated forest, and sugar maple forest. We hypothesize that variations in species composition and soil depth influence SOC storage and aggregate stability through mechanisms such as root interactions, microbial activity, and soil structure development. Soil samples were collected from three depth intervals (0–20 cm, 20–40 cm, and 40–60 cm) and analyzed for aggregate size distribution and SOC content. The results showed that aggregate size distribution and SOC stocks differ significantly across forest types, with the white birch–eastern hemlock mixed forest exhibiting the highest proportion of large aggregates (&gt;1.0 mm), which contribute to more stable soil structures. This forest type also had the highest total aggregate mass and mean weight diameter, indicating enhanced soil stability. In contrast, sugar maple forest displayed a greater proportion of smaller aggregates and a lower macroaggregate-to-microaggregate ratio, suggesting fewer stable soils. SOC stocks were closely linked to aggregate size, with macroaggregates containing the highest proportion of SOC. These differences in SOC distribution and soil aggregate stability can be attributed to several underlying mechanisms, including variations in plant root interactions, microbial activity, and the physical properties of the soil. Forests with diverse species compositions, such as the white birch–eastern hemlock mixed forest, tend to support more complex root systems and microbial communities, leading to improved soil aggregation and greater SOC storage. Additionally, forest management practices such as selective thinning and mixed-species planting contribute to these processes by enhancing soil structure, increasing root biomass, and promoting soil microbial health. These interactions play a crucial role in enhancing C sequestration and improving soil health. Our findings emphasized the importance of forest composition in influencing SOC dynamics and soil stability, offering insights into the role of forest management in C sequestration and soil health. This study provided a reference to a deeper understanding of SOC storage potential in forest ecosystems and supports the development of sustainable forest management strategies to mitigate climate change.

Ecological and environmental determinants of phytochemical variability in forest trees

Abstract Phytochemical variability in plants is driven by a complex interplay of ecological and environmental factors, including genetics, climate, and soil characteristics. Understanding these determinants is increasingly important as phytochemicals are vital in mediating plant interactions with herbivores, pathogens, and their broader ecosystem. Recent research shows the s that both abiotic factors—such as temperature fluctuations, ultraviolet radiation, and nutrient availability—and biotic factors, including herbivory and competition, have significant impacts on phytochemical profiles. Seasonal and spatial variations also influence the concentration of secondary metabolites, which are key to plant defenses and overall ecosystem health. For example, environmental stressors like drought or elevated temperatures can induce higher production of protective phytochemicals, while the developmental stage of the plant and the type of organ (leaf, root, flower) further dictate metabolite expression. This variability holds profound implications for forest conservation and climate resilience. As forests face increasing pressures from climate change, understanding the role of phytochemicals in maintaining ecosystem stability becomes critical. Phytochemicals contribute to plant fitness, species diversity, and ecological interactions, all of which are crucial for the resilience of forest ecosystems. The integration of phytochemical knowledge into forest management can promote biodiversity, enhance ecosystem services, and lead to more sustainable practices in conservation. This paper advocates for interdisciplinary research that connects ecology, chemistry, and conservation biology. Such collaboration is essential to unravel the complex relationships between phytochemical variability and environmental factors, ultimately fostering more informed conservation strategies that can safeguard forest ecosystems in the face of environmental change.