Conservation Conflicts Research Articles

Perceptions and realities of elephant crop raiding and mitigation methods

AbstractCrop raiding by African elephants (Loxodonta africana) jeopardizes human livelihoods and undermines conservation efforts. Addressing this issue is particularly important in subsistence farms adjacent to protected areas and requires assessing the perceived and actual scale of the problem and the benefits, limitations and adoption potential of mitigation techniques. To achieve these objectives, we assessed the effectiveness of chili and beehive fences relative to control plots, using a daily farm monitoring protocol implemented on 20 farms bordering the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (Tanzania). Prior to the field study, we interviewed 65 farmers about human–elephant interactions and contrasted interview findings with those of daily farm monitoring. Farmer perception of crop raiding frequency declined with increasing distance from the protected area and was, on average, eight times greater than daily farm monitoring data indicated. The majority of interviewees expressed a willingness to try chili or beehive fences, though chili fences were preferred. Generalized‐linear‐mixed models indicated that neither elephant farm intrusions nor damages were significantly reduced by either chili or beehive fences relative to the control sites. Losses per month and hectare did not differ significantly by fence type. However, farm plots with chili fences did not experience massive damages which occasionally occurred in beehive or control plots. This partial effectiveness of chili fences was further confirmed by contrasting crop losses from a subset of farms that were subject to a cross‐over experimental design. Our multidimensional case study suggests that chili fences have greater adoption potential than beehive fences. Nevertheless, additional efforts are required to increase effectiveness and to realize adoption potential. By providing insights into the context and circumstances that presented challenges to the effectiveness, sustainability and scalability of beehive and chili fences, this study can serve as reference for areas where crop raiding by elephants is a key conservation conflict.

Rewilding the world’s large carnivores without neglecting the human dimension

Rewilding is a growing conservation concept that seeks to enhance biodiversity and improve ecosystem functioning. When rewilding includes the reintroduction of large carnivores to landscapes from which they have been extirpated, assessing the societal impacts and acceptability is as, if not more, important than assessing the ecological feasibility (in: Smith et al, Application to Natural England for the trial reintroduction of lynx to England, Lynx UK Trust, Kielder, 2015a, Application for the trial reintroduction of lynx to Scotland, Lynx UK Trust, Kielder, 2015b; Johnson and Greenwood 2020). We caution that not including the human dimension when modelling the feasibility of a particular conservation action will produce flawed results by masking potentially low public acceptance and conflicts with particular stakeholders. Furthermore, repeated failure to work within a socio-ecological system (SES) framework threatens to alienate key stakeholders, particularly when NGOs propose trial reintroductions prior to any rigorous consideration of the human dimension. When the interests of one party (e.g. NGOs or conservationists) are perceived to be asserted over the interests of others (e.g. small-livestock farmers), the stage is set for a conservation conflict. Conservation conflicts not only hamper worthwhile conservation initiatives but drive a wedge between key stakeholders that need to agree on a clear long-term conservation and management plan before the state will accede to such proposals.

Influence of introduced peregrine falcons on the distribution of red knots within a spring staging site.

Predator recovery driven by single-species management approaches may lead to conservation conflicts between recovered predators and prey species of conservation concern. As part of an aggressive recovery plan, the Eastern Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team released (1975–1985) 307 captive-reared peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) and successfully established a breeding population within the mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain, a physiographic region with no historic breeding population and a critical spring staging area for migratory shorebirds. We examined the influence of resident falcons on the distribution of foraging red knots during spring migration. We conducted weekly aerial surveys (2006–2009) along the Virginia barrier islands during the spring staging period (25 April– 6 June) to map foraging red knots (Calidris canutus) and evaluated the influence of proximity (0–3, 3–6, >6 km) of beaches to active peregrine falcon nests on knot density (birds/km). Accumulated use of beaches throughout the season by red knots was significantly influenced by proximity of beaches to active falcon nests such that mean density was more than 6 fold higher on beaches that were >6 km compared to beaches that were only 0–3 km from active eyries. Whether or not an eyrie was used in a given year had a significant influence on the use of associated close (0–3 km) beaches. From 6.5 to 64 fold more knots used beaches when associated eyries were not active compared to when they were active depending on the specific site. Historically, red knots and other migratory shorebirds would have enjoyed a peregrine-free zone within this critical staging site. The establishment of a dense breeding population of falcons within the area represents a new hazard for the knot population.

Conflict in commons: collective action and institutions

Common pool resources (CPRs) are safe-guards and foundation for rural livelihood especially for the developing nations like India. Cooperation is needed to conserve CPRs due to its very features. Community institutions sometimes face conflicts to conserve commons cost-effectively. But, conflicts may simultaneously help and hamper the local governance of commons. For empirical verification, we have conducted a primary survey on 419 users of canal water, community forest and tank water in 11 CPRs dependent villages from West Bengal, India. We observed positive relations between conflict and collective action in conservation of commons. This finding seems to be conflicting with the notion that, conflict undermines collective action and therewith the potential for sustainability. We examined and found that successful informal communities are more conflictive and at the same time cooperative than formal one. The occurrences of supply, demand and policy side conflicts and conflict resolution methods are also not significantly different between formal and informal institutions. Therefore, conflict and informal institution have some positive impact for the successful conservation. We suggest that authorities have to study the nature and types of conflicts before implementing rules and institutional arrangements thereafter. Keywords – collective action, institutions, commons, conflicts, conservation

Measuring the intensity of conflicts in conservation.

Conflicts between the interests of biodiversity conservation and other human activities pose a major threat to natural ecosystems and human well‐being, yet few methods exist to quantify their intensity and model their dynamics. We develop a categorization of conflict intensity based on the curve of conflict, a model originally used to track the escalation and deescalation of armed conflicts. Our categorization assigns six intensity levels reflecting the discourse and actions of stakeholders involved in a given conflict, from coexistence or collaboration to physical violence. Using a range of case studies, we demonstrate the value of our approach in quantifying conflict trends, estimating transition probabilities between conflict stages, and modeling conflict intensity as a function of relevant covariates. By taking an evidence‐based approach to quantifying stakeholder behavior, the proposed framework allows for a better understanding of the drivers of conservation conflict development across a diverse range of socioecological scenarios.

The role of incentive-based instruments and social equity in conservation conflict interventions

The role of incentive-based instruments and social equity in conservation conflict interventions

自然保护地整合优化的景观格局变化分析——以贵州省思南县为例

自然保护地整合优化是我国重构自然保护地体系、衔接三条控制线划定、完善国土空间规划的重要举措。利用自然保护地整合优化成果、国土三调数据，综合运用GIS空间分析、景观格局指数和保护地边界分析法，对贵州思南县自然保护地整合优化各阶段景观格局的变化特征及其合理性进行了分析。结果表明：（1）整合优化后土地利用/覆盖组成变化显著，耕地、建设用地显著减少，优势景观林地面积增加。（2）整合优化后，思南县自然保护地景观异质性降低、优势度增强、破碎度增加。（3）各斑块类型的复杂性和异质性降低，林地优势度增强，但耕地、园地的破碎度增加，整合优化未造成优势景观的破碎化。（4）整合优化后，自然保护地边界复杂度显著提高，自然保护区、地质公园变化最明显，将给自然保护地勘界定桩增加难度。（5）耕地、建设用地、林地变化是思南县自然保护地景观格局变化的主要因素，耕地、建设用地主要作为矛盾调出自然保护地，而林地则主要作为破碎化斑块伴随矛盾一并调出。本研究自然保护地整合优化方案围绕矛盾和问题开展调整，所反映的景观格局变化，与整合优化调整规则限定的内容相适应，整合优化方案总体可行、合理。由于存在的破碎化、边界复杂化、区域分离等问题，在整合优化过程中应进一步优化调整规则，统一数据精度，尽量避免此类问题的产生。景观格局指数变化所反馈的信息可为自然保护地整合优化的科学开展及其成果的合理性评价提供一定参考，引入成果评估机制对自然保护地整合优化工作具有重要意义。;The integration and optimization of natural protected areas (IONPA) is a significant way to reconstruct the system of natural protected areas, connect the delimitation of three control lines, and improve the project of land spatial plans in China. In this paper, while using the result of IONPA and the data of the third national land survey, we analyzed the pattern of variations and rationalities of the landscape in each stage following the practice of IONPA in Sinan County, Guizhou Province, with the methods of GIS spatial distribution, landscape pattern index, and boundary analysis. The results showed that after IONPA, (1) the composition of land use/cover varied significantly, the area of cultivated land and construction land decreased dramatically, and the area of forest land from the dominant landscape increased relatively. (2) The landscape heterogeneity decreased, but both the dominance and the fragmentation increased in the natural protected areas in Sinan County. (3) The complexity and heterogeneity of each patch type decreased, but the dominance of forest land increased, while the fragmentation for the cultivated land and garden land increased. The IONPA did not fragment the dominant landscape. (4) The boundary complexity of the natural protected areas increased significantly, where the nature reserve and geopark varied the most, which would increase the difficulties of delimiting and staking the boundaries. (5) The changes of the cultivated land, construction land and forest land were the main factors attributed to the variations of landscape pattern in Sinan County. The cultivated land and construction land were suggested to move out from the natural protected areas mainly due to conservation conflicts, while the forest land was also suggested to move out mainly as fragmentized patches along with conflicts. In this study, the scheme of IONPA was adjusted focused on resolving the contradictions and problems, therefore, the changes of landscape pattern reflected from the practice in this study were consistent with the specific contents of the adjustment rules of IONPA. In general, the scheme of IONPA in this study was feasible and reasonable. However, there are still some problems like fragmentation, boundary complexity and regional separation, which remind us to avoid the above-mentioned problems, and meanwhile, to further optimize the adjustment rules of IONPA and to unify the accuracies of all data in the future. The information coming from the changes of landscape pattern indexes can provide a certain reference to conduct IONPA scientifically and to assess the result rationally. Additionally, introduction of the achievement evaluation mechanism to IONPA was significantly important.

Effects of stakeholder empowerment on crane population and agricultural production

Conflicts between opposing objectives of wildlife conservation and agriculture are increasing globally due to rising human food production and competition with wildlife over land use. Conservation conflicts are often complex and driven by variability and uncertainty in wildlife distribution and stakeholder wealth and power. To manage conflicts, empowering local stakeholders by decentralizing decisions and actions has been suggested to promote democratization and awareness of stakeholders. There is, however, a current gap in the understanding of how stakeholder empowerment (e.g., farmers’ and managers’ practical, time or monetary resources) affects policy effectiveness. In this study, we apply an individual-based model of management strategy evaluation to simulate the conservation conflict surrounding protected and thriving common cranes (Grus grus) causing damage to agricultural production in Sweden and along the European flyways. We model the effect of farmer empowerment (i.e., increasing budgets to affect populations and agricultural production) in four management scenarios, in which we manipulate the availability and cost of two actions farmers may take in response to crane presence on their land: non-lethal (scaring) or lethal (culling) control. We find that lower budgets lead to increases in population size due to increased use of less costly scaring instead of shooting. Higher farmer budgets lead to increased population extinction risk. Intermediate budgets allow farmers to control the population size around the management target and limit impact on agricultural production to intermediate levels. Our study highlights that stakeholder empowerment and culling strategies based on the number of stakeholders, and particularly their power to implement effective actions, needs careful consideration and monitoring when setting management targets and strategies. Further, our results show that empowering individual farmers has the potential to contribute to conflict management and to balance agricultural with conservation objectives, but increased stakeholder involvement also requires careful planning and monitoring.

Invited Commentary: When a Conservation Conflict Comes Full Circle—The Spotted Owl Conflict is a Wicked Problem

The conservation of the Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis) has been the center of a 40-yr conflict between those who wish to conserve owls and old growth forests and those who wish to log trees as commodities. Although the Spotted Owl conflict seems unique because it has lasted so long, it is no different than many other conservation conflicts in which many scientists—and raptor biologists specifically—might find themselves engaged. Therefore, I explore the commonality among conflicts, including specific details of the Spotted Owl case, to illustrate the problems inherent in conservation conflicts and why these disputes last so long. I suggest two general motivations that I believe capture the reasons behind people's willingness to engage in conflict: money and passion. Yet the specific motivations (e.g., economic well-being and ideology) nested within these general motivations are complex and interconnected. This complexity can lead to intractable situations, such as Spotted Owl conservation, which have been defined as “wicked problems” that cannot be resolved to the satisfaction of most. But understanding these broad motivations and identifying the wide variety of specific motivations nested within them may yield opportunities to manage—rather than resolve—a conservation conflict. Accordingly, I present a conceptual overview of the owl situation as a case study, along with some guidelines for raptor biologists working in conflict environments.

The role of risk perception and affect in predicting support for conservation policy under rapid ecosystem change.

Conservation conflicts are damaging for humans and wildlife, with differences in people's objectives fuelling challenges of managing complex, dynamic systems. We investigate the relative importance of economic, psychological (affect, trust and risk perception) and ecological factors in determining farmers' management preferences, using Greenland barnacle geese (Branta leucopsis) on Islay, Scotland, as a case study. Barnacle geese reduce agricultural productivity on Islay, negatively impacting household economies. Since 1992, farmers have received partial compensation but a new culling scheme has escalated conflict between conservation and agricultural interests. Using a questionnaire, we collected data from 75% of the farmers receiving goose payments. We found that affect was a strong driver of both risk perception and management preferences. However, we revealed complexity in these relationships, with trust and economic factors also influencing decision-making. Psychological and economic factors surrounding wildlife management must be understood if we are to achieve conservation objectives in human dominated landscapes.

Perception and Conflict in Conservation: The Rashomon Effect

AbstractConflict is a common feature in conservation and resource management. Environmental conflicts are frequently attributed to differences in values; however, variability in the perception of facts, rooted in social and cultural differences also underlies conflicts. Such differences in perception have been termed the Rashomon effect after the Kurosawa film. In the present article, we explore a conservation Rashomon effect—a phenomenon that results from a combination of differences in perspective, plausible alternative perspectives of a conservation issue, and the absence of evidence to elevate one perspective above others. As a remedy to the Rashomon effect, policy-makers have turned to scientists as honest brokers who share a common environmental reality. We evaluate this supposition and suggest that scientists, themselves, display Rashomon effects. We suggest that Rashomon effects can be reduced by acknowledging the plurality of reality, embracing epistemic pluralism, and prioritizing an inclusive process of resource management.

Experimental evidence for conservation conflict interventions: The importance of financial payments, community trust and equity attitudes

Abstract Conflicts between the objectives of agricultural production and conservation are becoming increasingly complex. Of vital importance to the success of conflict interventions is a detailed understanding of how stakeholders react to management interventions as well as the influence of interacting social and political factors. Across Europe, goose populations have increased considerably, leading to widespread impacts on agriculture and significant conflicts between different stakeholder groups. We used a novel experimental game to understand farmer preferences regarding the design of goose conflict interventions in Scotland. We specifically examined how three alternative interventions (government financial support for scaring activities, subsidies and agglomeration payments that include bonus payments for adoption by neighbouring farms) affect farmer propensity to support goose conservation interests through reduced shooting and the provision of sacrificial crops. We also examined the links between within‐game behaviour and real‐life attributes and attitudes of farmers. We found that all three interventions were conducive to pro‐conservation behaviour in the games. The effects of all three interventions were stronger among farmers who had higher trust towards other community members. Agglomeration payments led to increased provision of sacrificial crops among farmers with negative attitudes towards the current allocation of goose finances in Scotland. Farmers with more positive attitudes towards wildlife tourism were more likely to provide more sacrificial crops, and less likely to shoot in the games. Farmers' real‐life traits had a statistically significant but marginal impact on the effectiveness of financial payments, such as the number of geese being shot on their own lands, remoteness and crop damage by geese. These game results provide evidence for the potential of innovative financial instruments in conflict management and their interactions with social factors such as community trust, equity attitude and real‐life shooting levels. Our study highlights the importance of socio‐political elements in fostering mutually beneficial outcomes in conservation conflicts in addition to addressing material losses to wildlife. We also show how games can help in addressing conservation conflicts in a wide range of settings. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

(Dis)agreements in the management of conservation conflicts in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, Mexico

SummaryTo manage widespread conservation conflicts, building a shared understanding among the parties involved has been considered key. However, there is little empirical evidence of the role this understanding might play in the context of imposed biosphere reserves. Using semi-structured and in-depth interviews in two communities within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, we explored whether or not there is a shared understanding of conflicts between local people and reserve managers, and we analysed its contribution to conflict management. We found that a shared understanding is not a determining factor when the conflict solution demands actions that exceed stakeholders’ functions. While a shared understanding helps with the global process of conflict management, there are other challenges: local impairment resulting from the exclusionary creation and the operation of protected areas and the need for action to solve a conflict that exceeds the functions of stakeholders.

Applying IUCN reintroduction guidelines: An effective medium for raising public support prior to conducting a reintroduction project

IUCN guidelines state that public support for conservation projects should be garnered prior to any ‘on the ground’ activities taking place, as public knowledge and support, both passive and / or active, can influence greatly the success of a species reintroduction. This study investigated the effectiveness of generating public support within a zoo setting for a conservation species reintroduction project. Questionnaires were completed by public visiting the zoo allowing data collection, pre and post the display of the species, that provided an opportunity to report on the impact a species presence has on generating levels of support. Generally, passive support was very high for the project, but increased after the red-billed chough were viewable to the public. However, levels of donations reduced once the species was visible to the public, with people appearing to favour mammalian species over a bird species. However, red-billed chough raised more ‘virtual’ funding than water vole, which was not on public display. Innate favouritism or likeability for a species appeared to play a major role in decision making by the public, indicating that where conservation conflicts may arise they would lend support to ‘likeable’ over ‘dull’ species regardless of conservation priorities. This indicates greater education would be needed in such cases to reinforce the wider conservation positives from proposed projects. Whilst not all human dimensions were measured here, the study showed that education and having an animal on display can positively raise public passive support and potential active support for a conservation project.

The ebb and flow of adaptive co-management: A longitudinal evaluation of a conservation conflict

Adaptive co-management (ACM) is an emerging approach to the governance of social-ecological systems, but there are few long-term assessments of its efficacy. This is especially true in conservation conflicts, where ACM can mitigate disputes between polarised stakeholders. We evaluated ACM that emerged in 2005 to address conflict between seal conservation and fisheries interests in the Moray Firth, Scotland. We interviewed 20 stakeholders in 2015, repeating a survey carried out in 2011 which applied an indicator framework to measure outcomes and pre-conditions for ACM to continue. In 2015, all but one of the 12 outcome indicators were positive, the exception being the conservation status of salmon. However, pre-conditions for ACM’s continuation had weakened, with declines between 2005, 2011 and 2015. These were most marked for three indicators: leaders prepared to champion the process, presence of a bridging organisation or individual, and participation of all impacted stakeholders. The results show that ACM in this conservation conflict is dynamic. Perceived declines in salmon abundance and increases in seal numbers have renewed tensions amongst stakeholders, triggering a ‘revival’ phase of ACM initiated by fishery interests. Our study provides empirical evidence of ACM’s fluid nature, and how resource crises can reignite ACM. We suggest that participatory evaluation is a potentially important early-warning mechanism that can identify remedial action and galvanise stakeholders to respond to the re-emergence of conflict.

Relative influence of wild prey and livestock abundance on carnivore-caused livestock predation.

Conservation conflict over livestock depredation is one of the key drivers of large mammalian carnivore declines worldwide. Mitigating this conflict requires strategies informed by reliable knowledge of factors influencing livestock depredation. Wild prey and livestock abundance are critical factors influencing the extent of livestock depredation. We compared whether the extent of livestock predation by snow leopards Panthera uncia differed in relation to densities of wild prey, livestock, and snow leopards at two sites in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal. We used camera trap‐based spatially explicit capture–recapture models to estimate snow leopard density; double‐observer surveys to estimate the density of their main prey species, the blue sheep Pseudois nayaur; and interview‐based household surveys to estimate livestock population and number of livestock killed by snow leopards. The proportion of livestock lost per household was seven times higher in Upper Dolpa, the site which had higher snow leopard density (2.51 snow leopards per 100 km2) and higher livestock density (17.21 livestock per km2) compared to Lower Dolpa (1.21 snow leopards per 100 km2; 4.5 livestock per km2). The wild prey density was similar across the two sites (1.81 and 1.57 animals per km2 in Upper and Lower Dolpa, respectively). Our results suggest that livestock depredation level may largely be determined by the abundances of the snow leopards and livestock and predation levels on livestock can vary even at similar levels of wild prey density. In large parts of the snow leopard range, livestock production is indispensable to local livelihoods and livestock population is expected to increase to meet the demand of cashmere. Hence, we recommend that any efforts to increase livestock populations or conservation initiatives aimed at recovering or increasing snow leopard population be accompanied by better herding practices (e.g., predator‐proof corrals) to protect livestock from snow leopard.

From Power and Privilege to Dignity and Respect: Developing a Theory of Species Stratification and Interspecies Dominance

Traditional conservation scientists approach conservation conflict from a resource-management perspective, in which both wildlife and non-living natural resources are managed to balance the interests of competing human stakeholders. We instead consider conflict between the powerful and less powerful humans and wildlife alike. Applying tenets of dominance theory to ecological networks, we propose that socio-political power structures that marginalize human populations – denying voice and inclusion – may align with similar neglect of wildlife species. Considering nonhuman species as collections of agentic beings seeking to satisfy their own survival interests and that of their respective social group, we connect the subjects of justice and ecological justice through common challenges rooted in the psychology of power.

Resident Perceptions of Distribution, Recognition and Representation Justice Domains of Environmental Policy-Making: The Case of European Ecological Network Natura 2000 in Poland

Largescale nature conservation programs such as European ecological network Natura 2000 tend to fuel local conservation conflicts due to perceived unbalance between costs and benefits, lack of recognition and representation of residents in the decision-making process concerning policy implementation and management. This study considers Fraser's critical model of political justice to understand how residents construct N2000 justice and discuss the potential implications for the political framing of N2000 conflicts. The novelty of this approach lies in that it embraces various components within the three justice domains: distribution, recognition, representation, to shed light on N2000 conflicts and highligh justice as a way to legitimize N2000 policy.

Untangling worldwide conflicts in marine protected areas: Five lessons from the five continents

As the number of world Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) has been steadily increasing in the last decades, confrontations within them may have followed the same path. In order to unravel worldwide conservation conflicts in MPAs, a literature review was done. By doing so, five lessons were learnt: (1) 87 MPAs in the five continents have reported conflicts in the literature; (2) The increase in the number of world MPAs was found to be one of the forces driving this trend; (3) Intergroup competition over the use of marine resources, feelings of exclusion, poor communication and inequities in the distribution of MPA’ benefits were the most frequent conflicts; (4) Conflict resolution strategies were scarce in the literature and displayed different outcomes; (5) To effectively address conflict and reach compromise, the roots of disputes should be identified. Further research on the effectiveness of different conflict resolution mechanisms is needed.

A multispecies assessment of wildlife impacts on local community livelihoods.

Conflicts between the interests of agriculture and wildlife conservation are a major threat to biodiversity and human well-being globally. Addressing such conflicts requires a thorough understanding of the impacts associated with living alongside protected wildlife. Despite this, most studies reporting on human-wildlife impacts and the strategies used to mitigate them focus on a single species, thus oversimplifying often complex systems of human-wildlife interactions. We sought to characterize the spatiotemporal patterns of impacts by multiple co-occurring species on agricultural livelihoods in the eastern Okavango Delta Panhandle in northern Botswana through the use of a database of 3264 wildlife-incident reports recorded from 2009 to 2015 by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks. Eight species (African elephants [Loxodonta africana], hippopotamuses [Hippopotamus amphibious], lions [Panthera leo], cheetah [Acinonyx jubatus], African wild dogs [Lycaon pictus], hyenas [Crocuta crocuta], leopards [Panthera pardus], and crocodiles [Crocodylus niloticus]) appeared on incident reports, of which 56.5% were attributed to elephants. Most species were associated with only 1 type of damage (i.e., either crop damage or livestock loss). Carnivores were primarily implicated in incident reports related to livestock loss, particularly toward the end of the dry season (May-October). In contrast, herbivores were associated with crop-loss incidents during the wet season (November-April). Our results illustrate how local communities can face distinct livelihood challenges from different species at different times of the year. Such a multispecies assessment has important implications for the design of conservation interventions aimed at addressing the costs of living with wildlife and thereby mitigation of the underlying conservation conflict. Our spatiotemporal, multispecies approach is widely applicable to other regions where sustainable and long-term solutions to conservation conflicts are needed for local communities and biodiversity.