Conservative Character Research Articles

Fructose oligosaccharides: Possible markers of phylogenetic relationships among dicotyledonous plant families

Stems from more than 555 species representing 440 genera of approximately 210 dicotyledonous families were surveyed for the presence of fructose oligosaccharides. The tissues from 372 species representing 312 genera and 187 families did not contain such oligosaccharides. The sugars occurred sporadically or in small amounts in members of the following families: Crossosomataceae, Lauraceae, Malpighiaceae, Cornaceae, Myrisinaceae, Melianthaceae, Greyiaceae, and Simaroubaceae. The fructosyl sucrose trisaccharide, isokestose, aswell as its fructose tetrasaccharide homolog (but not higher inulin oligosaccharides) were present in members of the families Hippocastanaceae and Limnathaceae. Stems from members of the families Clethraceae and Monotropaceae, and some members of the Polemoniaceae, contained two series of fructose oligosaccharides: one based on isokestose (the inulin series) and the other one based on kestose (the levan series). The inulin or isokestose-based series of fructose oligosaccharides, alone, was present in members of the following families: Menyanthaceae, Boraginaceae, Campanulaceae, Goodeniaceae, Stylidiaceae, Brunoniaceae, Calyceraceae and Compositae. The primary metabolites occur ubiquitously and consistently in tissues of plants of these families. We hypothesize that this conservative character represents several phylogenetic alliances among them.

Transfer of the physodermataceae from the chytridiales to the blastocladiales

The relationship of Physoderma to the Chytridiales and the Blastocladiales based on light and electron microscopical studies is discussed. Electron microscopical observations of Physoderma resting sporangia and their spores are presented, providing new elements for a discussion of the taxonomic validity and position of the family Physodermataceae; the light microscopical appearance of Physoderma spores is re-evaluated; growth and morphology of the sporangium of Physoderma are described, relating it to the Catenariaceae (Blastocladiales) as well as to the Oadochytriaceae (Chytridiales). Based on similarities in spore structure, a conservative taxonomic character, transfer of the genus Physoderma (coextensive with the family Physodermataceae) from the Chytridiales to the Blastocladiales is proposed, maintaining it as a separate family.

The Cooptation of Fixed Sentencing Reform

Criticism of indeterminate sentencing was initially advanced as part of a larger radical program to transform American society. Yet recent sentencing reform legislation legitimated by this criticism has taken on a con servative character. This development is documented here, and explained in terms of political and social change over the past decade.

Modèle de défaut d'empilement dans la pyrite

Abstract A MODEL FOR STACKING FAULTS IN PYRITE A model for stacking faults laying in the (001) plane of pyrite is proposed which is in accord with previously published experimental observations. This stacking fault has an a [0, x, 1/2] vector not parallel to the fault plane. It has a coherent and conservative character and half of the sulphur atoms are located on a coincidence sublattice. Through the fault, the atoms take the positions of the marcassite structure.

The primary structure of the coat protein of alfalfa mosaic virus strain VRU. A hypothesis on the occurrence of two conformations in the assembly of the protein shell.

The complete primary structure of the coat protein of strain VRU of alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) is reported. The strain is morphologically different from all other AMV strains as it contains large amounts of unusually long virus particles. This is caused by structural differences in the coat protein chain. The amino acid sequence has mainly been established by the characterization of peptides obtained after cleavage with cyanogen bromide and digestion with trypsin, chymotrypsin, thermolysin or Staphylococcus aureus protease. The major sequencing technique used was the dansyl-Edman procedure. The VRU coat protein consists of 219 amino acid residues corresponding to a molecular weight of 24056. Compared to the coat protein of strain 425 [Van Beynum et al. (1977) Eur. J. Biochem. 72, 63-78], 15 amino acid substitutions were localized. Most of them have a conservative character and may be explained by single-point mutations. A correction is given for the AMV 425 coat protein: Asn-216 was shown to be Asp-216. The prediction of the secondary structure for the two viral coat proteins was not significantly influenced by the various amino acid substitutions except for the region containing residues 65-100. This led us to the hypothesis that the AMV coat protein may occur in two different conformations favouring its incorporation into either a pentagonal or hexagonal quasi-equivalent position in the lattice of the protein shell. The substitutions in the above-mentioned region of the VRU coat protein may have caused a strong preference for the hexagonal lattice conformation. The model is supported by preliminary sequence data of the same coat protein region in AMV 15/64, a strain morphologically intermediate between 425 and VRU.

A Comparative Study of β-Crystallins from Ungulates, Whale and Dog

The major <i>β</i>-crystallins from the ocular lens of 4 species from the order Artiodactyla (calf, sheep, hog and goat) and 3 perissodactyls (rhino, tapir and donkey) were isolated and compared by means of gel electrophoretic techniques and immunodiffusion. In addition <i>β</i>-crystallins from whale and dog were used in this study. Although these <i>β</i>-crystallins were not identical, a high degree of similarity was found between animals of the same order. Furthermore all species studied seem, like previously found in calf, to have one major component (<i>βB</i>p) with identical electrophoretic properties, which is shared by both <i>β</i>_H(_igh)-crystallin and <i>β</i>_L(ow)- Crystallin. This suggests a conservative character of this polypeptide in evolution. The most striking differences between artiodactyls and perissodactyls are found in the <i>β</i>_H-aggregates, especially apparent is the occurrence of the polypeptide, designated as <i>β</i>B1 in the calf, in the investigated artiodactyl species, but not in the perissodactyls. This result is sustained by immunodiffusion studies. Moreover these latter experiments also indicate that in whale and dog a polypeptide occurs, which is immunologically related to <i>β</i>B1 from calf. The results may be explained by the loss or profound structural change of this polypeptide in the course of perissodactyl evolution

A new electrophoretic approach to biochemical systematics of bees

SDS electrophoresis of soluble proteins from 49 species of bees from 8 families produce a conservative character set. Differences between species appear to be actual differences in polypeptides and their concentrations rather than spurious differences. The data set based on the absorption values of bands proves to be more useful than does a data set based on the molecular weights of bands present or one based on the presence and absence of bands. Numerical analysis of a matrix of distance coefficients based on absorption values of bands shows much overlap between families of bees. Also, some taxa of questionable affinities when compared morphologically can be shown to be biochemically quite similar to other members of their traditional morphological families. Other taxa, which appear very similar morphologically, are highly differentiated biochemically. Examples are presented to compare and contrast the data from the SDS-separated character set to predictions based on the theories of regulatory and constant rate protein evolution. The results of the study largely agreed with predictions based on constant rate protein evolution. Exceptions may be understood in the framework of regulatory evolution. Consequences of discordance between morphological and biochemical phenetics are discussed as they affect systematic classifications.

Biochemical systematics and evolutionary genetics of the common shiner species group

Electrophoretic analyses were performed on blood proteins of the five members of the Notropiscornutus species group. The protein systems included two plasma esterases, transferrin, a pre-albumin and hemoglobin. Plasma protein polymorphism within and between taxa was common. Hemoglobin appeared to be a more consistent and conservative character for assessing phylogenetic relationships. As deduced by both biochemical and morphological evidence, N. cerasinus is the most primitive member of the species group. Uniqueness for several biochemical characters suggests that the striped shiner should be afforded full species recognition as N. isolepis but additional study is needed concerning its relationship with N. cornutus chrysocephalus. The closest biochemical similarity was between the forms interpreted here as subspecies N. cornutus cornutus and N. c. chrysocephalus. N. albeolus clearly evolved from N. c. cornutus but early hybridization with N. cerasinus resulted in limited introgression from that species.

„Männliche“ und „weibliche“ Rolle – Dynamik und unausgetragene Konflikte / The “male” and the “female” role – Dynamics and conflict

Abstract The paper compares the findings of four surveys, conducted between the years 1964 and 1970, in three different countries (STEINMANN and FOX, USA; ROCHEBLAVE-SPENLE, France; PFEIL, Germany: Hamburg and Büdingen); it attempts to collate these findings with a view to diachronic interpretation and, with respect to the leading question of changing notions of sex roles, it offers a final evaluation. First, there are those results which have been established before, namely that (a) there are divergencies between women’s self-images and their notions of the ideal woman; that (b) men as well as women do but have a very scanty knowledge about the conception of their role as developed for them by the opposite sex, while at the same time (c) new role attributes, obviously of more general relevance, are becoming discernible; and, lastly, that it is possible (d) to observe typical sequences in the processes of sex role change; added to those findings are these more specific ones: that (a) role images vary markedly with respect to internal versus external signs of emancipation (with orientations towards ‘intra-familial values’ remaining rather conservative, whereas those towards values of ‘self-realization’ in the spheres of employment, public life, and leisure activities tend to be more progressive); that (b) the drifting apart of these role dimensions is being reinforced by the two sexes’ differing value attitudes, and is conducive to insecurities for both the male and the female (he experiencing a shrinking of the universe of roles open to him, whilst she has not as yet found a definitive new role ideal of her own); and that (c) such insecurities call forth family crises as well as an atmosphere of general distrust between the sexes,which is due mainly to a lack of openmindedness, frankness, and mutual information. These results are made more specific by means of comparisons along lines of employment groupings, societal strata, and affiliations to different cultures. The picture revealed by such diachronic comparisons shows that, on the one hand, role concepts associated with ‘companionate marriage’ have been gaining additional ground during recent years - and are likely to become the predominating ones in the future -, whilst there still are extant, on the other hand, sex roles that are determined, heavily in some parts, by tradition; all this leads to a constellation which carries with it a double burden especially for the woman. Women’s emancipation, it appears, is not being achieved in one big stride but rather, step by step and under tensions. This follows from data according to which women’s ideal notions about themselves do manifest, paradoxically enough, features of a more conservative character than is true of their realistic self-images. In conclusion, the paper takes a stand for a pragmatic solution (and, incidentally, a liberal one) to present-day role problems. This should be sought, it argues, not in mutual ‘assimilation’ of men and women but in the opening up of a new range of diversified role potentials. The difference between the male and female roles could then be expected to take on a new shape, of hitherto unknown appearance, and to attain to a new equilibrium.

A GEOGRAPHICAL INVESTIGATION INTO VILLAGES AND AGRICULTURE IN NORTH INDIA BY THE UNIVERSITY OF HIROSHIMA

A Geographical research project was carried out by the members of Research Teams of the University of Hiroshima during the period between 1967 and 1973. The first field research was carried out in the Ganga Plain and the second on the Punjab both in North India. An extensive as well as an o intensive approach were applied. A. GANGA PLAIN A brief reference to the field study in settlements in the Ganga Plain will be made first. Major subjects for field research were as follows: (1) villages and agriculture, (2) rural central places, and (3) industrial towns. However, reference is to be made to the first subject alone in this paper. It may safely be concluded that the ricecultivating area in the Ganga Plain is characterized by peasants, peasant village and peasant agriculture. A ringshaped structure was noted with inner, intermediate and outlying land. It may be argued from the ring-shaped arrangement of land-zoning, from the customs of land use, from the villagers' sentimental attachment to different zones, and also from some documents, that the prototype of the ring-shaped structure was a twofold arrangement: an area of enclosed land and its periphery. Traditional and conservative land use were noted everywhere. B. THE PUNJAB The geographical field research in the Punjab was carried out from September 27, 1972 to January 31, 1973 on a similar basis to the above-mentioned research in the Ganga Plain. This project aimed at studying the characteristics of the village and the culture on one hand and at probing into ways of modernization and economic development on the other. It was also hoped that a study of the geography of the Punjab would lead us to an understanding of the geography of the dry tropics and also of Indian philosophy. The following research items were proposed: natural environment and land use; historical background; village morphology and function; land use and agriculture; industrialization. An intensive sample study was made together with an extensive general study. Schedules and checklists were carefully prepared in advance and revised on the spot from time to time. Sample study villages were selected according to the following indices: (1) isopleth of aridity index 20, which separates the wet area from the arid zone; (2) the availability of previous studies; (3) villagers' readiness to co-operate with us in research; (4) facilities for accommodation. Thus, the following four villages were selected: a. Lohna: A Peasants' and Tribesmen's hamlet using traditional agriculture in a humid valley in the Lower Himalayas. b. Gaggar Bhana: A Typical Village in the Punjab Plains with Canal and Tube-well Irrigation Facilities. c. Salmatpur: A Village in Ferment in Cho(torrent)-land without Canal Irrigation Facilities. d. Mangali: A Village on the Marginal Land of the Dry Farming Area in the Semiarid Zone of Haryana. It must be first noted that radical changes—transformation—are noted in the Punjab Plains. Major results of the field research may be summarized as follows: 1. Development of irrigation facilities. The Punjab Plains were famous for the early construction of irrigation canals on a large scale not only in the Indian subcontinent but also throughout the world. These irrigation facilities had paved way for the “wheat granary”. However, serious problems were caused by them: raising of the ground water level and particularly waterlogging. Fortunately these problems have been solved by the construction of drainage canal and tube-wells in recent times. Thus, many parts of the Punjab Plains have benefited from the irrigation and drainage facilities, which have paved the way for the “green revolution”. But there is some fear of a lowering of the ground water level by over-construction of tube-wells. 2. The less conservative character of the society.

Melanin pigmentation in the dorsal plumage of New Zealand oystercatchers

Feather samples gathered from the mantle of breeding birds of the three New Zealand species of oystercatcher were analysed spectrophotometrically to evaluate melanin pigmentation parameters. The only statistically significant difference in these parameters was among individuals, indicating that melanin pigmentation is a conservative character of little systematic value. There is no evidence for geographic variation in melanin pigmentation of black phase Haematopus unicolor, and thus there is no justification for considering southern black birds specifically distinct from their northern counterparts on the basis of dorsal plumage colour.

A Comparative Ethological Study of Strombid Gastropods

AbstractThe behavior of ten species of strombid gastropods (Strombus and Lambis spp.) was studied in the Marshall, Hawaiian and Line Islands. Measurements were made in both the laboratory and the field of the MAP's comprising feeding, locomotion, righting of overturned shells, and escape from predators, which reflect significant ecological and morphological determinents of behavior in the Strombacea. All species feed by grazing with the proboscis under the protection of the shell. All Strombids use the MAP Leap during locomotion. The rate of locomotion varies as a hyperbolic function of length; increasing with greater size in the genus Strombus and decreasing in the genus Lambis. Larger animals travel a greater distance with each leap but make fewer leaps/minute. Species of Strombus right their overturned shells by a Kick at the substratum with the operculum, but species of Lambis use the MAP Pull and turn the animal over with the operculum wedged under the shell. Only one attempt is needed in the species of Lambis, but more are used by the faster moving species of Strombus. Intention movements are performed during righting. Species of both genera escape from molluscivorous cones using the MAP's Tentacle Wave, Flip and Run. In the species of Strombus, Flip causes a backward movement of the shell off the substratum, but in species of Lambis the shell restricts the movements and the animal merely turns to one side. Escape locomotion is much faster than normal locomotion, due to the greater distances travelled with each flip by the smaller species of Strombus and the greater number of leaps/minute made by all species. The flip escape response appears particularly adapted for escape from dart-shooting predators. A review of the literature on strombid behavior shows that the behavior of all species within the Strombacea is remarkably similar even though there is great disparity in shell shapes. Because of similarities in soft body parts and behavior, the Xenophoridae should be retained within the Strombacea. It is suggested that the species within the Strombacea evolved in parallel from a common aporrhaid-like stock and the behavior has diverged less than shell form and is therefore a more conservative character in the group's phylogeny than is shell shape. The behavior of a snail can be greatly modified by its shell. Differences in behavior between Strombus and Lambis are attributed to restrictions imposed by the shell and not differences in body movements. Behavior must be adapted to the shell shape and both, of course, reflect the animal's ecological setting.

Note on theKolmogorov statistic for a general discontinuous variable

A simple demonstration of the conservative character of theKolmogorov test in the case of general discontinuous distributions is given.

Comparison of oligoribonucleotides and oligodesoxyribonucleotides. I. Formation of double helices

AbstractThe ability of oligodesoxyribonucleotides of various chain lengths to form complexes has been compared with that of oligoribonucleotides. Four series of oligonucleotidcs were prepared and investigated, i.e., dCn at acid pH versus rCn, dAn and dTn versus. rAn and rUn at neutral pH. The results indicate that in dilute solution, the formation of complexes is greatly facilitated in the case of desoxyoligomers and occurs for shorter oligomere than in the corresponding ribooligomers. The spectrophotometric titration of deoxyribooligo C indicates the appearance of two pK values in the 4–5 pH region characteristic of the double‐stranded form, which occurs for much shorter dCn than rCn. The circular dichroism (CD.) spectra of deoxycytidylies in dilute solution starting from the trimer are conservative, characteristic of the double‐stranded helical form of poly C at acid pH. In contrast, the CD spectra of a series of corresponding ribo Cn, under identical conditions is of nonconservative character similar to that of the single‐stranded form of poly C at neutral pH, but differs in the band position. This spectrum is called intermediate. Only at higher concentrations of oligonucleotidcs (i.e., 10−3Minstead of 10−4M) does the circular dichroism spectrum of longer ribocytidylics assume conservative character. Thermal denaturation of deoxycytidylces at acid pH are strongly dependent on chain length and concentration, its one would expect for a cooperative helix‐coil transition. The circular dichroism spectra measured at different temperatures shows one isosbestic point. In dilute solution, the standard‐state enthalpy change found was 5–6 kcal/mole for higher oligomers (dC7). These properties are all in agreement with a structural transition from the d‐Cn double‐stranded form to a coil for n &gt; 3. Studies of dAn and dTn in solutions of high ionic strength at low temperature indicate that complex formation occurs already at the level of trimer and for high oligomers. Under identical conditions a complex between rAn and rUn is detected only for oligomers longer than the hexamer. The nature of the “intermediate” form of oligoribo C at acid pH and low temperature was investigated by sedimentation and circular dichroism. A model of rCn is proposed of linear molecules which are partially double‐stranded and partially single‐stranded, which probably are slowly rearranged by “slippage” into a regular‐double‐stranded helical form.

A. Genetic Homology in the Enterobacteriaceae

Publisher Summary This chapter reviews four separate measures of genetic relatedness among the members of the Enterobacteriaceae and related genera that have been considered. First, transfer of genetic elements can occur in intercrosses within the entire group. However, integration of chromosomal genes from escherichia coli occurs with high frequency into the chromosome of shigella, with much reduced frequency into salmonella typhimurium, and is generally undetectable into other genera of the group. Second, DNA–DNA or DNA–RNA hybridization methods indicate that E. coli and shigella are closely related, while other genera are much less related to E. coli. Third, the linkage map is a conservative character, which is relatively unaltered in the genera escherichia, salmonella, and klebsiella, and may be similar in the entire family, while there is no evidence of similarity to the linkage maps of unrelated groups, such as bacillus and pseudomonas, to which transfer does not occur. Fourth, amino acid sequences of tryptophan synthetase reveal that these proteins in E. coli and S. typhimurium are related, but with a significant number of amino acid differences.

Los referentes culturales en la narrativa de Tawfīq al-Ḥakīm: análisis de las técnicas de traducción relacionadas con la comida y la vestimenta

Nuestro objetivo es realizar un análisis cuantitativo de las técnicas de traducción aplicadas en el trasvase al español de los referentes culturales relativos a la comida y la vestimenta en dos novelas de Tawfīq al-Ḥakīm. Los traductores ofrecen textos que no se caracterizan por una gran dosis de extranjerización. Se percibe un equilibrio entre las técnicas que representan la máxima manifestación de la extranjerización y la domesticación: el préstamo y la adaptación. Comparando los datos, observamos ciertas diferencias entre las dos traducciones. Así, dentro de las técnicas de extranjerización, uno de los traductores prefiere recurrir al préstamo, mientras que el otro se decanta a favor del equivalente acuñado. En cuanto al grado de transgresión de las formas de expresión propias de la lengua de llegada, observamos un evidente carácter conservador en Diario de un fiscal rural, frente a un uso del lenguaje más atrevido y transgresor en El despertar de un pueblo. Los datos van en consonancia con lo que ambos traductores anuncian en sus respectivas introducciones.

Horticulture of Western Area of Mikawa Highland and its Suburbanization

The Western Area of Mikawa-Highland, situated in the municipal sphere of 30-50km from Nagoya City, is a mountainous suburb area with the semi-highland cool climate. Nearby the Toyota automobile industrial center it has been extraordinally suffering from manpower exploitation by the enterprises. After several surveys, following points are verified and examined:1) According to each crops or equipments style, there are many sorts of horticulture. At the point of view of the business economy, they are classified into these categories: vegetables horticulture as a side work, vegetables and flowers horticulture in hot house as a complex business management and ciclamen horticulture in hot house as principal economic understanding.2) In accompanying the suburbnized degrees of the whole region, various horticultures were brought up: i) when they are in a stage that it needs the horticulture as a side work, ii) or when a larger scale of complex business is inevitable to cope with the flowing out of the manpower from that area, and iii) when an autonomic horticultural business is imperative to correspond with the enlargement of the whole agricultural economy.3) In raising of horticulturists, the object was turning from the whole class of agriculturists to the middle class, and after then, now it has been transiting to the upper class, as amelioration of the existing agricultural state is so pressing.4) This is an exemplified type of the horticultural area, where has some artificially reared and guided aspect, so that it shoud not be exclusively explained by the results of the spontanious aerial examination that, it is well befitting itself to the natural condition as well as to the social condition there.5) So much easily it is affected from the percussion of suburbanization. It is too often disposed to develop as side work horticulture owing to its region's commutation. The first stage is appearance of the horticultural side work by the graduates who attend office. The 2nd stage is that of the middle class agricul turists raised by their change of occupation, and the 3rd stage the variation of housewives' working power by means of microbus transportation system. Remarkable exploitation of farmers' working power is accelerating the horticultural class differentiation.6) Thus, the horticultural promotion at the mountain village was not to be initiated from its inner side motiviation, but has been pushed on by the powerful measures from public institutions, such as from the Agricultural Improvement Station, etc. Henceforth originally it has started with decisive conservative character in it. Yet it is too feeble to resist against the outside impact from the exploitation of farmer's working power.

Dimensional analysis of soil properties after treatment with the rotary paraplow, a new conservationist tillage tool

This study examined a new conservation tillage tool, the “rotary paraplow”. Emphasis was placed on evaluating the tool’s conservation potential using dimensionless graph analysis. The dynamic conditions of the soil were investigated in terms of physical soil properties. Having determined the variables to be measured, dimensional analysis was used to plan the experiments. Two variations were considered for each dependent variable (linear speed, working depth, and rotation velocity), totaling eight treatments, allotting in each an experimental strip with five data collection points. This arrangement totaled 16 experimental strips, with 80 data collection points for all variables. The rotary paraplow generates a trapezoidal furrow for planting with a very wide bottom and narrower at the top. The volumetric subsoiling action generates cracks on the sides of the band. Because of their specific geometry the blades of rotary paraplow generate a soil failure according to its natural crack angle, optimizing the energy use, while preserving the natural soil properties. Results showed the conservation character of the rotary paraplow, capable of breaking up clods for planting without changing the original physical soil properties.

Anti-Political Political Thought

Australian politics absorbed a shock in the depression which affected the three parties in different ways. Labor was split and put out of office; the Nationalist Party was succeeded by a new party, the United Aus tralia Party; the Country Party had to adapt itself to movements of rural unrest. Outside the parties, new movements sprang suddenly into existence professing disillusionment with party politics. Those who battled for power in each of these situations drew on the stock of political beliefs traditionally available to them. The advocates of socialism raised their voices once more in the Labor Party; disillusioned businessmen and other friends and supporters of the Nationalists sud denly remembered traditional criticisms of party politics; the leaders of the Country Party drew on New State thinking to help them absorb the rural dissatisfaction. In short, the depression provoked party figures and other public men to state their political beliefs explicitly and often more dogmatically than usual. Non-Labor beliefs evaluating and explaining the political system were set out on a number of topics besides party politics and new States. Mistrust of democracy was evident in some of it, and much of it had a distinctly conservative character. Upper Houses safeguarded democracy against the impulses of transient majorities, according to an article in the United Australia Review.1 The Bulletin2 thought governors helped safeguard democracy. The Pastoral Review quoted Alexander Hamilton and gloomily recalled that for close on forty years it had been showing the 'folly' of democracy.3 Menzies reminded an audience that citizens had duties as well as rights and suggested that democracy was not an end in itself. Self-government, he said, could succeed only when people were prepared to abandon selfishness at the expense of others.4 The duty of government, according to the Australasian Manufac turer, was not to interfere with the working of industry, but to maintain peace, construct roads, dispense justice impartially and facilitate enter prise in various ways.5 Senator Brennan thought that the prime duty of government was not to make people rich but to protect them while they made themselves rich.6 Government ought to withdraw from 'socialist' enterprise, to stop 'coddling' individuals and 'interfering' with industries. A. C. Davidson, of the Bank of N.S.W., thought governments could not initiate new industry.7 A Farmers' and Settlers' Association conference resolved that social services did 'untold harm' by reducing 'thrift' and removing the 'self-reliance' of the people.8 A writer in the Pastoral Review argued that bureaucracy was the cause of present troubles and the ruination of democracies.9 The Empire Party, an

ESTIMATION OF CONSERVATISM OF CHARACTERS BY CONSTANCY WITHIN BIOLOGICAL POPULATIONS.

The concept of conservatism is basic to much of taxonomy. A conservative character is usually defined as one that has changed more slowly than a non-conservative one during phylogeny. The reliability of a character for placing organisms properly in evolutionary schemes is also included in conservatism. It is argued quite validly that a character which changes slowly is the best kind of character for discerning the evolutionary relationships of organisms. This is true in practice because of the very incompleteness of the historical record of phylogeny. When not all the forms of a line are known, there will be gaps in the record of rapidly-changing characters. But slowly-changing ones may still have a fairly complete series represented, even if only a few forms are known. The patterns of evolutionary relationship are easier to trace in characters that evolve slowly. It is usually assumed that not all characters are equally reliable, and many taxonomic problems can be reduced to the process of recognizing the most reliable ones. It has long been the practice to select conservative characters by the criteria of constancy within known groups and estimated biological importance. This approach has been criticized by numerical taxonomists (Sokal and Sneath, 1963), who point out that biological importance is seldom known, and that calling a character conservative if it is constant within a known group constitutes circular reasoning, if the group was constructed on the assumption that the character was conservative. It is not the concept of conservatism itself that is invalid, but only the means that have been suggested for finding conservative characters. There is little doubt that if a character is constant throughout a group that is natural in an evolutionary sense, then that character is a more reliable indicator of evolutionary relationship than is a character that varies widely in the same group. I shall present an argument to show how it may be inferred which characters are most likely to be conservative. Suppose that a given character is conservative in that it varies little in a given natural group. The variability of that character between the populations of that hypothetical group can only be small if the variability within single biological populations is also small. Otherwise random variation alone would be expected to produce wider variation within the group. Now it has been argued that the fitness of a population is maximized when the population is carrying as much heterogeneity as it can (Mayr, 1963). But then we expect a character to vary little within populations only if the centripetal selective forces acting on it are relatively intense. Thus we would expect that a conservative character would be characterized by a low variability within populations, in turn due to heavy selection on that character. On the other hand, it seems fair to say that a character with high centripetal selection acting on it is of great adaptive importance to the organism, and conversely. Then we expect a character with low variability within populations to be conservative, at least in the sense that it is of great biological importance: it is important to the survival of the organism. It is likely that it would be relatively difficult for such a character to change during the course of evolution. Because of the intense centripetal selection acting on it, a population un-