Health Effects In Children Research Articles

Burden, Clinical Characteristics, Risk Factors, and Seasonality of Adenovirus 40/41 Diarrhea in Children in Eight Low-Resource Settings

BackgroundThe application of molecular diagnostics has identified enteric group adenovirus serotypes 40 and 41 as important causes of diarrhea in children. However, many aspects of the epidemiology of adenovirus 40/41 diarrhea have not been described.MethodsWe used data from the 8-site Etiology, Risk Factors, and Interactions of Enteric Infections and Malnutrition and the Consequences for Child Health and Development Project birth cohort study to describe site- and age-specific incidence, risk factors, clinical characteristics, and seasonality.ResultsThe incidence of adenovirus 40/41 diarrhea was substantially higher by quantitative polymerase chain reaction than enzyme immunoassay and peaked at ∼30 episodes per 100 child-years in children aged 7–15 months, with substantial variation in incidence between sites. A significant burden was also seen in children 0–6 months of age, higher than other viral etiologies with the exception of rotavirus. Children with adenovirus 40/41 diarrhea were more likely to have a fever than children with norovirus, sapovirus, and astrovirus (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.62; 95% CI, 1.16–2.26) but less likely than children with rotavirus (aOR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.49–0.91). Exclusive breastfeeding was strongly protective against adenovirus 40/41 diarrhea (hazard ratio, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.48–0.85), but no other risk factors were identified. The seasonality of adenovirus 40/41 diarrhea varied substantially between sites and did not have clear associations with seasonal variations in temperature or rainfall.ConclusionsThis study supports the situation of adenovirus 40/41 as a pathogen of substantial importance, especially in infants. Fever was a distinguishing characteristic in comparison to other nonrotavirus viral etiologies, and promotion of exclusive breastfeeding may reduce the high observed burden in the first 6 months of life.

The impact of COVID-19 on children: insights from the Western Cape experience

In the initial phases of the COVID-19 epidemic in South Africa, children experienced relative neglect, as they were deemed to be at low risk for contracting and spreading COVID-19 infection. Overwhelmed by adult infections, the health system responded slowly to children’s complex needs brought about by the epidemic. This in-depth case study outlines the impacts of the COVID-19 epidemic on child health in the Western Cape, and the subsequent remediating responses. The case study draws on multiple data sources including routine data, case examples of health system and organisational responses, and experiential evidence from practitioners across the health system. It draws substantially on a series of advocacy briefs that examine the multi-dimensional impacts of COVID-19 on children in the Western Cape. Approximately 12 000 children (persons under 18) contracted COVID-19 in the province (March 2020 to March 2021). Thousands more were affected by the illness and death of relatives, and by the collateral effects of the epidemic including increased hunger, violence, injury and mental health problems, coupled with the disruption of healthcare services, schooling, early childhood development programmes, and social support networks. Essential child health services were de-escalated and child-health resources were re-allocated for adult COVID-19 care, with both immediate and long-term consequences for child health. A proactive response from child health services, aided by the Western Cape’s relative socio-economic advantage, a strong civil society response, and a stable, well-functioning health system, helped to mitigate harm, but not before significant damage was done. The Western Cape experience signals that, even in a well-resourced setting, children’s needs may be overlooked in times of crisis and there is a critical need for ‘voices’ speaking for and alongside children in all decision-making spaces, and for pro-active, well-planned, child-focused responses.

Antibiotic use attributable to specific aetiologies of diarrhoea in children under 2 years of age in low-resource settings: a secondary analysis of the MAL-ED birth cohort

ObjectiveTo quantify the frequency of antibiotic treatments attributable to specific enteric pathogens due to the treatment of diarrhoea among children in the first 2 years of life in low-resource settings.DesignSecondary...

How to protect the children from the third wave of COVID

R value of Omicron strain has been recorded at 10 globally and in India the R value has been found to be at 2.69. The R value greater than 1 means that the numbers of cases are growing rapidly and clearly this variant is more contagious than the previous one. More over this wave is affecting children across the country. The data for this review were obtained from studies pertaining to clinical features, epidemiological and immunization trends in children obtained from various journals. As per the recent evidence the Omicron variant is more transmissible, but has less serious health consequences for children than for adults, it is important to avoid infection among children.

Trends in the Incidence of New-Onset Anorexia Nervosa and Atypical Anorexia Nervosa Among Youth During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Canada

The COVID-19 pandemic has had considerable mental health consequences for children and adolescents, including the exacerbation of previously diagnosed eating disorders. Whether the pandemic is a factor associated with the concomitant increase in new-onset anorexia nervosa or atypical anorexia nervosa remains unknown. To assess the incidence and severity of newly diagnosed anorexia nervosa or atypical anorexia nervosa in a national sample of youth before and during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. This repeated cross-sectional study analyzed new eating disorder assessments that were conducted at 6 pediatric tertiary-care hospitals in Canada between January 1, 2015, and November 30, 2020. Patients aged 9 to 18 years with a new anorexia nervosa or atypical anorexia nervosa diagnosis at the index assessment were included. COVID-19-associated public health confinement measures during the first wave of the pandemic (March 1 to November 30, 2020). Primary outcomes were the incidence and hospitalization rates within 7 days of de novo anorexia nervosa or atypical anorexia nervosa diagnosis. Event rate trends during the first wave were compared with trends in the 5-year prepandemic period (January 1, 2015, to February 28, 2020) using an interrupted time series with linear regression models. Demographic and clinical variables were compared using a χ2 test for categorical data and t tests for continuous data. Overall, 1883 children and adolescents with newly diagnosed anorexia nervosa or atypical anorexia nervosa (median [IQR] age, 15.9 [13.8-16.9] years; 1713 female patients [91.0%]) were included. Prepandemic anorexia nervosa or atypical anorexia nervosa diagnoses were stable over time (mean [SD], 24.5 [1.6] cases per month; β coefficient, 0.043; P = .33). New diagnoses increased during the first wave of the pandemic to a mean (SD) of 40.6 (20.1) cases per month with a steep upward trend (β coefficient, 5.97; P < .001). Similarly, hospitalizations for newly diagnosed patients increased from a mean (SD) of 7.5 (2.8) to 20.0 (9.8) cases per month, with a significant increase in linear trend (β coefficient, -0.008 vs 3.23; P < .001). These trends were more pronounced in Canadian provinces with higher rates of COVID-19 infections. Markers of disease severity were worse among patients who were diagnosed during the first wave rather than before the pandemic, including more rapid progression (mean [SD], 7.0 [4.2] months vs 9.8 [7.4] months; P < .001), greater mean (SD) weight loss (19.2% [9.4%] vs 17.5% [9.6%]; P = .01), and more profound bradycardia (mean [SD] heart rate, 57 [15.8] beats per minute vs 63 [15.9] beats per minute; P < .001). This cross-sectional study found a higher number of new diagnoses of and hospitalizations for anorexia nervosa or atypical anorexia nervosa in children and adolescents during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada. Research is needed to better understand the drivers and prognosis for these patients and to prepare for their mental health needs in the event of future pandemics or prolonged social isolation.

Association of Maternal Stress and Social Support During Pregnancy With Growth Marks in Children’s Primary Tooth Enamel

Exposure to maternal psychosocial stressors during the prenatal and perinatal periods can have major long-term mental health consequences for children. However, valid and inexpensive biomarkers are currently unavailable to identify children who have been exposed to psychosocial stress and the buffers of stress exposure. To assess whether a growth mark in tooth enamel, the neonatal line, is associated with exposure to prenatal and perinatal maternal psychosocial factors. This prospective cohort study used exfoliated primary canine teeth and epidemiological survey data from 70 children enrolled in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a birth cohort based in Bristol, England. Exfoliated teeth were collected from children at 5 to 7 years of age. Data were collected from January 1, 1991, to December 31, 1998, and were analyzed from January 1, 2019, to August 10, 2021. Four types of prenatal and perinatal maternal psychosocial factors were studied: stressful life events, psychopathological history, neighborhood disadvantage, and social support. Data were collected from mailed-in questionnaires completed during and shortly after pregnancy. Neonatal line width measured within 3 portions of the tooth crown (the cuspal, middle, and innermost third) in exfoliated primary canines. A total of 70 children (34 of 70 [48.7%] male; 63 of 67 [94.0%] White) were studied. Most children were born full term (57 [83.8%]) and to mothers of typical child-bearing age (60 [88.2%]). Neonatal lines were wider in the canines of children born to mothers who self-reported severe lifetime depression (β = 3.35; 95% CI, 1.48-5.23; P = .001), any lifetime psychiatric problems (β = 2.66; 95% CI, 0.92-4.41; P = .003), or elevated anxiety or depressive symptoms at 32 weeks' gestation (β = 2.29; 95% CI, 0.38-4.20; P = .02). By contrast, neonatal lines were narrower in children born to mothers who self-reported high social support shortly after birth (β = -2.04; 95% CI, -3.70 to -0.38; P = .02). The magnitude of these associations was large, up to 1.2 SD unit differences, and persisted after adjusting for other risk factors. In this cohort study, neonatal line width was associated with exposure to maternal perinatal psychosocial factors. Replication and validation of these findings can further evaluate teeth as possible new biomarkers.

Socio-ecological determinants of under-five mortality in Nigeria: exploring the roles of neighbourhood poverty and use of solid cooking fuel.

Globally, despite the decline in under-five mortality rate from 213 per 1000 live births in 1990 to 132 per 1000 live births in 2018, the pace of decline has been slow, and this can be attributed to poor progress in child survival interventions, including those aimed at reducing children's exposure to household pollution. This study examined the influence of neighbourhood poverty and the use of solid cooking fuels on under-five mortality in Nigeria. Data for the study comprised a weighted sample of 124,442 birth histories of childbearing women who reported using cooking fuels in the kitchens located within their house drawn from the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey. Descriptive and analytical analyses were carried out, including frequency tables, Pearson's chi-squared test and multivariate analysis using a Cox proportional regression model. The results showed that the risk of under-five mortality was significantly associated with mothers residing in areas of high neighbourhood poverty (HR: 1.44, CI: 1.34-1.54) and the use of solid cooking fuels within the house (HR: 2.26, CI: 2.06-2.49). Government and non-governmental organizations in Nigeria should initiate strategic support and campaigns aimed at empowering and enlightening mothers on the need to reduce their use of solid cooking fuels within the house to reduce harmful emissions and their child health consequences.

Assessment of the health risk and geo-accumulation of toxic metals in agricultural soil and wheat, northern Iran.

The current work was conducted to study the concentrations of heavy metals (HMs) in farming soil and wheat and compute their geological and health indexes, including geo-accumulation index (Igeo), chronic daily intake (CDI), hazard index (HI), hazard quotient (HQ), and cancer risk (CR). In general, 256 samples were collected from agriculture soil (AS) and wheat in Kalaleh and Aq Qala areas, northern Iran. The average rates of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn were detected to be 0.28, 25.24, 15.44, and 60.33mg·kg-1, respectively, for AS and 0.01, 8.85, 0.73, and 33.81mg·kg-1 for wheat, respectively. Based on the results, the HQ and HI levels for investigated HMs were lower than l. So, the health risk of HMs exposure for adults and children was low. CR levels for Pb in AS for both children and adults were observed greater than the threshold value. Accordingly, lead-contaminated soil will be carcinogenic if ingested by children. On the other hand, the exposure to Pb (through wheat) and Cd (through both soil and wheat) had the acceptable CR level for all groups. As a result, for an extended period, there are no significant health consequences for children and adults.

Children’s indoor and outdoor play as potential correlates of mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in Iran: a brief report on national survey

ABSTRACT Over the past 16 months, Iranian children have had their schools closed. Prolonged COVID-19-related restrictions and limited play activities can have significant mental health consequences in children. Using a cross-sectional design, a sample of Iranian parents (n = 1182) of children aged between 5 and 11 years completed an online survey including: Children's Play Scale (CPS), Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form (I-PANAS-SF), and the Strength and Difficulties Questionarie (SDQ). Parents reported that their child spent significantly longer time playing outside at home and inside at home than anywhere else. Children were also reported to spend the minimum number of hours at indoor play centres, near water, green spaces, and playgrounds. Compared to the pre-COVID-19 context, significant declines in outdoor play activities during the pandemic were reported for 83% of children. Findings revealed that there is a significant but small negative correlation between mental health difficulties and total CPS scores (r = −.427, p < .0001). Correlations of CPS scores with Positive and Negative affect were weak but significant (r = .211, and r = −.294, respectively; p < .0001). Results indicate that it is necessary to find strategies to increase children's outdoor play activities, especially when they return to their schools with wider-spread social and emotional needs than before.

Abuse, Mental State, and Health Factors Pre and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison among Clinically Referred Adolescents in Ontario, Canada.

Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, population surveys revealed increased levels of anxiety and depression, while findings from large-scale population data analyses have revealed mixed findings with respect to the mental health consequences for children and youth. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the well-being and health-compromising behaviors of adolescents (12–18 years) previously referred for mental health services. Data were collected (pre-pandemic n = 3712; pandemic n = 3197) from mental health agencies across Ontario, Canada using the interRAI Child and Youth Mental Health assessment. Our findings revealed no increased incidence of witnessing domestic violence nor experiencing physical, sexual, or emotional abuse. Further, there were no increases in the risk of self-harm and suicide, anxiety, or depression among our sample of clinically referred youth. Finally, results demonstrated no increase in problematic videogaming/internet use, disordered eating, or alcohol intoxication, and a decrease in cannabis use. Our findings add to the growing body of knowledge as to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children and youth. Further, findings underscore the importance of understanding the nuanced impact of the pandemic on various subgroups of children, youth, and families and highlight the need for continued monitoring of outcomes for these children and youth.

Exploring First-Person Perspectives in Designing a Role-Playing VR Simulation for Bullying Prevention: A Focus Group Study

Bullying is a complex and abusive form of violence that has potentially serious social and mental health consequences for children and adolescents. With reference to the Olweus Bullying Circle, this project involves the development of a simulation that will allow students to view themselves in different roles played in bullying situations using a virtual reality setting. Interventions need to explore the perspective of the student who bullies and the student being bullied, as well as the bystander in order to model desirable intervention behavior. The expectation is that through role-playing, the students will explore different perspectives and learn how to respond to bullying situations. Two focus groups were conducted to allow experts to contribute to the design of the bullying prevention simulation and gather suggestions for improvements. Findings from the focus group studies suggest that to create effective bullying prevention, Virtual Reality simulations should consider focusing on role-playing, customization of the characters, environments, scenarios and a scoring/reward system.

Child health consequences of parental opioid use: a scoping review

ABSTRACT Parental opioid use may negatively affect child health. However, the scope of existing knowledge in this area has not been mapped. We conducted a scoping review of articles (N=1188) describing various influences of parental opioid use on child health. The included studies (N=41) represented three types of such influences: through parental behaviors affected by opioids (n=22), through prenatal opioid exposure (n=9) and through poisoning (n=10). All three types of influences were associated with elevated risks for child health and development. Little research examined implications for child physical health and health service use; however, the existing evidence suggests concerning trends. One question remains largely unanswered, whether children’s health is affected directly by parental opioid use or by co-occurring factors such as parental mental health problems and/or environmental risks. Evidence is lacking on best practices to prevent/reduce health risks among children exposed to parental opioid use. Research and policy/practice implications are discussed.

Waist circumference and waist-to-height ratio in 7-year-old children-WHO Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative.

Childhood obesity is a serious global health problem. Waist circumference (WC) and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) reflect body fat distribution in children. The objectives of this study were to assess WC and WHtR in 7-year-old children and to determine body mass index (BMI), WC, and WHtR differences in children from 10 selected countries across Europe (Bulgaria, Czechia, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, North Macedonia, Norway, Spain, and Sweden) participating in the World Health Organization (WHO) Europe Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative (COSI). The 50th and 90th percentile of WC (according to COSI and "Identification and prevention of Dietary- and lifestyle-induced health EFfects In Children and infantS" (IDEFICS) cutoff values) and WHtR above 0.5 were used as measures of abdominal obesity in a unique sample of 38,975 children aged 7.00-7.99years. Southern European countries, including Greece and Spain, showed significantly higher BMI, WC, and WHtRin both genders (p<0.0001) than Eastern and Northern Europe. The highest values for WC were observed in Greece (60.8±7.36cm boys; 60.3±7.48cm girls), North Macedonia (60.4±7.91cm boys; 59.0±8.01cm girls), and Spain (59.7±6.96cm boys; 58.9±6.77cm girls). WC and WHtRin may add an information about the occurrence of central obesity in children.

Trends in underweight, stunting, and wasting prevalence and inequality among children under three in Indian states, 1993\u20132016

Child undernutrition remains high in India with far-reaching consequences for child health and development. Anthropometry reflects undernutrition. We examined the state-level trends in underweight, stunting, and wasting prevalence and inequality by living standards using four rounds of the National Family Health Surveys in 26 states in India, conducted in 1992–1993, 1998–1999, 2005–2006, and 2015–2016. The average annual reduction (AAR) for underweight ranged from 0.04 percentage points (pp) (95% CI − 0.12, 0.20) in Haryana to 1.05 pp (95% CI 0.88, 1.22) in West Bengal for underweight; 0.35 pp (95% CI 0.11, 0.59) in Manipur to 1.47 (95% CI 1.19, 1.75) in Himachal Pradesh for stunting; and − 0.65 pp (95% CI − 0.77, − 0.52) in Haryana to 0.36 pp (95% CI 0.22, 0.51) in Bihar & Jharkhand for wasting. We find that change in the pp difference between children with the poorest and richest household living standards varied by states: statistically significant decline (increase) was observed in 5 (3) states for underweight, 5 (4) states for stunting, and 2 (1) states for wasting. Prevalence of poor anthropometric outcomes as well as disparities by states and living standards remain a problem in India.

Molecular Detection of Soil-Transmitted Helminths and Enteric Protozoa Infection in Children and Its Association with Household Water and Sanitation in Manhiça District, Southern Mozambique.

Intestinal parasite infections can have detrimental health consequences in children. In Mozambique, soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are controlled through mass drug administration since 2011, but no specific control program exists for enteric protozoa. This study evaluates STH and protozoan infections in children attending healthcare in Manhiça district, Southern Mozambique, and its association with water and sanitation conditions. We conducted a cross-sectional study in children between 2 and 10 years old in two health centers (n = 405). A stool sample and metadata were collected from each child. Samples were analyzed by multi-parallel real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). We fitted logistic regression-adjusted models to assess the association between STH or protozoan infection with household water and sanitation use. Nineteen percent were infected with at least one STH and 77.5% with at least one enteric protozoon. qPCR detected 18.8% of participants with intestinal polyparasitism. Protected or unprotected water well use showed a higher risk for at least one protozoan infection in children (OR: 2.59, CI: 1.01–6.65, p-value = 0.010; OR: 5.21, CI: 1.56–17.46, p-value = 0.010, respectively) compared to household piped water. A high proportion of children had enteric protozoan infections. Well consumable water displayed high risk for that.

Modeling spatial determinates of teenage pregnancy in Ethiopia; geographically weighted regression

BackgroundIn developing countries, 20,000 under 18 children give birth every day. In Ethiopia, teenage pregnancy is high with Afar and Somalia regions having the largest share. Even though teenage pregnancy has bad maternal and child health consequences, to date there is limited evidence on its spatial distribution and driving factors. Therefore, this study is aimed to assess the spatial distribution and spatial determinates of teenage pregnancy in Ethiopia.MethodsA secondary data analysis was conducted using 2016 EDHS data. A total weighted sample of 3381 teenagers was included. The spatial clustering of teenage pregnancy was priorly explored by using hotspot analysis and spatial scanning statistics to indicate geographical risk areas of teenage pregnancy. Besides spatial modeling was conducted by applying Ordinary least squares regression and geographically weighted regression to determine factors explaining the geographic variation of teenage pregnancy.ResultBased on the findings of exploratory analysis the high-risk areas of teenage pregnancy were observed in the Somali, Afar, Oromia, and Hareri regions. Women with primary education, being in the household with a poorer wealth quintile using none of the contraceptive methods and using traditional contraceptive methods were significant spatial determinates of the spatial variation of teenage pregnancy in Ethiopia.Conclusiongeographic areas where a high proportion of women didn’t use any type of contraceptive methods, use traditional contraceptive methods, and from households with poor wealth quintile had increased risk of teenage pregnancy. Whereas, those areas with a higher proportion of women with secondary education had a decreased risk of teenage pregnancy. The detailed maps of hotspots of teenage pregnancy and its predictors had supreme importance to policymakers for the design and implementation of adolescent targeted programs.

Bimodal Dynamics in Short-Term Growth Among Peruvian Infants at Risk of Growth-Faltering

ObjectivesOver the short term, infants may grow in a ‘bimodal’ manner, with interspersed periods of greater and lesser growth. Our aim was to describe the modality of high-resolution growth dynamics of infants who experienced cumulative growth faltering in the first year of life. MethodsThrice-weekly measurements of length were recorded for n = 58 children enrolled from birth to one year in the Peru cohort of the Etiology, Risk Factors and Interactions of Enteric Infections and Malnutrition and the Consequences for Child Health and Development’ (MAL-ED) study. Finite mixture models were fitted to the length velocity data to test for evidence of multiphasic patterns. We then tested whether evidence of a multiphasic pattern remained after applying a smoothing algorithm to account for measurement error. Data was smoothed using kernel regression with a monotonic constraint. Finite mixture models were fitted to unsmoothed and smoothed data to examine whether growth patterns varied by age and sex. We also fitted stratified models to compare short-term growth patterns between infants who maintained a consistent length-for-age Z-score (LAZ) from 2–12 months of age, versus those whose LAZ decreased by at least 0.25 over the same period. ResultsUnsmoothed data were best described by a biphasic finite mixture model. The growth of children less than 3 months old was described by a mixture of two normal distributions with both means significantly greater than zero (0.110 cm/day, 95%CI: 0.105, 0.114 and 0.291 cm/day, 95%CI: 0.235, 0.347). By 6 months, this transitioned to a pattern of two normal distributions, one with a mean near zero (0.019, 95% CI: 0.0178, 0.020), and one with a mean of 0.102 cm/day (95% CI: 0.098, 0.0107). Children who lost 0.25 or more in LAZ from 2 to 12 months had a similar mean growth velocity in both the ‘low’ and ‘high’ growth phase but spent smore time in the former phase (54.9% of days versus 39.2% of days) than children who either maintained or gained LAZ over the same age. ConclusionsConsistent with other reports, we find that infant growth appears to follow bimodal dynamics characterized by intervals of greater velocities as well as periods of much lower growth. Funding SourcesThis work was supported by the National Institutes of Health and the BMGF.

Consequences of teenage childbearing on child health

This paper uses national longitudinal data to analyze the effects of having a teen mother on child health outcomes from birth to young adulthood. We use an empirical strategy that relies on miscarriages to put bounds on the causal effects of teen childbearing. Results show that having a teen mother does not have negative health consequences for children. In addition, children of teen mothers report fewer diagnosed disorders and conditions requiring medical attention. The results suggest that policies focused on delaying teen childbearing will not improve child health outcomes.

Risk Factors and Hazards in the Household Environment for Elevated Blood Lead Levels in Urban Preschool Children of Vellore: A Case-Control Approach in the MAL-ED Birth Cohort.

To study the household environmental risk factors and hazards associated with elevated blood lead levels (EBLLs) in preschool children in an urban setting of Vellore, South India. A case-control study within the MAL-ED (Etiology, Risk Factors and Interactions of Enteric Infections and Malnutrition and the Consequences for Child Health and Development) birth cohort was conducted between January 2014 and January 2015. The study included 153 pre-school children: 87 cases and 66 controls with elevated and normal BLLs, respectively. A structured questionnaire was used to assess the sociodemographic profile, household environment, breastfeeding practices, children's habits, and the use of cosmetics in them. Household environmental samples of wall and door paint, floor dust, drinking water, and cosmetics were estimated for lead levels using gas flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). Children born with low birth weight, those living in houses painted at least once in the last five years and those residing in houses older than ten years had a higher odds of EBLLs [OR (95% CI) = 3.79 (1.24-11.1); 4.84 (1.42-16.53); 5.07 (2.06-12.46), and 2.58 (0.99-6.69)], respectively. Drinking water samples from both cases (88%) and controls (95%) had lead levels more than the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), USA recommendation of 0.015ppm. Low birth weight and the household environment pose important risk factors/hazards for elevated blood lead levels in urban preschool children. Multipronged interventions that include government legislations, household environmental modification, safe water supply, and community education are pivotal in reducing lead exposure in young children.

Iris Claus Comments on COVID-19 in Korea: Success Based on Past Failure

Iris Claus Comments on COVID-19 in Korea: Success Based on Past Failure