Conscious Recall Research Articles

Unconscious Activation of Negative Emotional Memories Increases Pain Unpleasantness.

The influence of unconscious emotional processes on pain remains poorly understood. The present study tested whether cues to forgotten unpleasant images might amplify pain (i.e., in the absence of conscious recall). Seventy-two healthy female adults (19 to 34 years) performed an adapted Think/No-think paradigm (T/NT) using 72 combinations of neutral face images (cues) paired with 36 neutral and 36 unpleasant images. After completion of the T/NT task, cues associated with forgotten neutral or unpleasant images were identified. Cues to either neutral or unpleasant images from the NT condition were then presented in randomized order while participants received intermediate-level thermal pain stimulation on the left hand. Ratings of both pain intensity and unpleasantness were acquired after each trial. Mean pain unpleasantness ratings were greater during presentation of cues to forgotten negative versus neutral images (5.52 [SD = 2.06] versus 5.23 [SD = 2.10]; p = .02). This pattern was also present when comparing cues to remembered negative versus neutral images (5.62 [SD = 1.94] versus 5.04 [SD = 1.90]; p < .001). Mean pain intensity ratings were higher for cues to negative versus neutral images when remembered (5.48 [SD = 1.79] versus 5.00 [SD = 1.69]; p < .001), but not when forgotten (5.27 [SD = 1.96] versus 5.16 [SD = 1.93]; p = .30). Using an adapted T/NT-Pain paradigm, this study demonstrated that cues to nonrecallable (but potentially unconsciously activated) negative emotional memories amplify pain unpleasantness, similar to known effects of conscious negative emotions.

Effect of Propofol, Sevoflurane, and Isoflurane on Postoperative Cognitive Function Following Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy in Elderly Patients

Cognition refers to the mental action or process through which an individual acquires knowledge solvesproblems and makes decisions for the future. In other words, cognition may be defined as themental processes which account for the daily activities carried out by an individual. Deficits in thesemental processes tend to affect the memory, attention, verbal and non-verbal learning, visual andauditory processing, and motor functioning of an individual, thereby resulting in cognitive impairment.Memory is classified into two types, that is, explicit memory and implicit memory. Explicit memoryinvolves the conscious recall of the information received in the past while implicit memory refers to theinformation or knowledge which is unconsciously and effortlessly recalled.

Assessment of explicit and implicit memories during remimazolam anaesthesia using the process dissociation procedure: A prospective cohort study.

Memory formation during remimazolam anaesthesia, where a bispectral index (BIS) is sometimes not maintained at less than 60 despite the maximal dose, is worthy of evaluation. Investigate the formation of explicit and implicit memories using the process dissociation procedure during remimazolam anaesthesia at a BIS of 60 to 80. A prospective cohort study. A tertiary medical centre in Seoul, South Korea, between March 2022 and July 2022. One hundred patients undergoing general anaesthesia using remimazolam. The BIS was maintained at 60 to 80 during anaesthesia induction with remimazolam. Words were spoken to patients via headphones for 15 min. The primary outcome was the probability of explicit or implicit memory formation as calculated using the original and extended models, within 24 h after word presentation. Conscious recall memory was assessed using a short-structured interview within 1 and 24 h after surgery. Memory formation was inferred to be absent if 0 was included in the 95% confidence interval (CI) of the probability. The main results showed no evidence of explicit or implicit memory. The 95% CI of the probability of explicit memory formation included 0 for both models, -0.01 (-0.04 to 0.02) and -0.04 (-0.10 to 0.01), respectively. The 95% CI of the probability of implicit memory formation did not include 0 when evaluated using the original model, 0.08 (0.06 to 0.10), but included 0 when evaluated using the extended model, 0.00 (-0.03 to 0.03). The modified Brice interview revealed no evidence of awareness. There was no evidence of explicit or implicit memory formation during remimazolam anaesthesia (BIS 60 to 80). Further research is warranted to establish whether explicit and implicit memories are still absent even in the presence of surgical stimulation. KCT0006752 ( http://cris.nih.go.kr ).

The Morra Game as a Naturalistic Test Bed for Investigating Automatic and Voluntary Processes in Random Sequence Generation.

Morra is a 3,000-years-old hand game of prediction and numbers. The two players reveal their hand simultaneously, presenting a number of fingers between 1 and 5, while calling out a number between 2 and 10. Any player who successfully guesses the summation of fingers revealed by both players scores a point. While the game is extremely fast-paced, making it very difficult for players to achieve a conscious control of their game strategies, expert players regularly outperform non-experts, possibly with strategies residing out of conscious control. In this study, we used Morra as a naturalistic setting to investigate the necessity of attentive control in generation of sequence of items and the ability to proceduralize random number generation, which are both a crucial defensive strategy in Morra and a well-known empirical procedure to test the central executive capacity within the working memory model. We recorded the sequence of numbers generated by expert players in a Morra tournament in Sardinia (Italy) and by undergraduate students enrolled in a course-based research experience (CRE) course at Lawrence Technological University in the United States. Number sequences generated by non-expert and expert players both while playing Morra and in a random number generation task (RNGT) were compared in terms of randomness scores. Results indicate that expert players of Morra largely outperformed non-experts in the randomness scores only within Morra games, whereas in RNGT the two groups were very similar. Importantly, survey data acquired after the games indicate that expert players have very poor conscious recall of their number generation strategies used during the Morra game. Our results indicate that the ability of generating random sequences can be proceduralized and do not necessarily require attentive control. Results are discussed in the framework of the dual processing theory and its automatic-parallel-fast vs. controlled-sequential-slow polarities.

Rethinking the definition of episodic memory.

The definition of episodic memory, as proposed by Tulving, includes a requirement of conscious recall. As we are unable to assess this aspect of memory in nonhuman animals, many researchers have referred to demonstrations of what would otherwise be considered episodic memory as "episodic-like memory." Here the definition of episodic memory is reconsidered based on objective criteria. While the primary focus of this reevaluation is based on work with nonhuman animals, considerations are also drawn from converging evidence from cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience. Implications of this rethinking are discussed, as well as considerations of familiarity, indirect measures of memory, and generally what should be viewed as necessary for episodic memory. This perspective is intended to begin an iterative process within the field to redefine the meaning of episodic memory and to ultimately establish a consensus view. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Nonsynaptic plasticity model of long-term memory engrams.

Using steady-state electrical properties of non-ohmic dendrite based on cable theory, we derive electrotonic potentials that do not change over time and are localized in space. We hypothesize that clusters of such stationary, local and permanent pulses are the electrical signatures of enduring memories which are imprinted through nonsynaptic plasticity, encoded through epigenetic mechanisms, and decoded through electrotonic processing. We further hypothesize how retrieval of an engram is made possible by integration of these permanently imprinted standing pulses in a neural circuit through neurotransmission in the extracellular space as part of conscious recall that acts as a guiding template in the reconsolidation of long-term memories through novelty characterized by uncertainty that arises when new fragments of memories reinstate an engram by way of nonsynaptic plasticity that permits its destabilization. Collectively, these findings seem to reinforce this hypothesis that electrotonic processing in non-ohmic dendrites yield insights into permanent electrical signatures that could reflect upon enduring memories as fragments of long-term memory engrams.

Long-term memory biases auditory spatial attention.

Long-term memory (LTM) has been shown to bias attention to a previously learned visual target location. Here, we examined whether memory-predicted spatial location can facilitate the detection of a faint pure tone target embedded in real world audio clips (e.g., soundtrack of a restaurant). During an initial familiarization task, participants heard audio clips, some of which included a lateralized target (p = 50%). On each trial participants indicated whether the target was presented from the left, right, or was absent. Following a 1 hr retention interval, participants were presented with the same audio clips, which now all included a target. In Experiment 1, participants showed memory-based gains in response time and d'. Experiment 2 showed that temporal expectations modulate attention, with greater memory-guided attention effects on performance when temporal context was reinstated from learning (i.e., when timing of the target within audio clips was not changed from initially learned timing). Experiment 3 showed that while conscious recall of target locations was modulated by exposure to target-context associations during learning (i.e., better recall with higher number of learning blocks), the influence of LTM associations on spatial attention was not reduced (i.e., number of learning blocks did not affect memory-guided attention). Both Experiments 2 and 3 showed gains in performance related to target-context associations, even for associations that were not explicitly remembered. Together, these findings indicate that memory for audio clips is acquired quickly and is surprisingly robust; both implicit and explicit LTM for the location of a faint target tone modulated auditory spatial attention. (PsycINFO Database Record

Violence and New Media Ethics

Who could have imagined the speed and depth of new media until Hosni Mubarak of Egypt was overthrown by an upsurge resulted from an acute civil resistance or until the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi? No doubt, the Arab Spring was germinated in a virtual world and further escalated into the “real.” In this scenario, it can be said that the ego (of the civil society and of the youth bearing new spree of freedom) opposes the conscious recall of repressed unpleasant experiences that ultimately culminates in a new era (or a different era, if not new). The upsurge, in this sense, is an epitome of “constructive violence.” But then again, the series attack on Buddhist monasteries and Shrines in Ramu, Bangladesh in reaction against a Facebook image of desecrating the Quran gives us a different glimpse regarding the versatility or charisma of new media. Hence, drawing two examples that cover both the constructive and destructive milieu of new media, the paper is designed to address the concept of new media ethics and the idea of violence the new media bring forth. Keeping “violence” under a broader aspect the paper illustrates what kinds of ethical issues may arise from the consumption of new media and technology. It sheds a light on the popular argument that technology is ethically neutral or ambivalent. Finally, the paper takes into account the behavioral aspects of individuals and community when they are blessed (or cursed?) with overt CMC (Computer Mediated Communication).

Initiating technical refinements in high-level golfers: Evidence for contradictory procedures

When developing motor skills there are several outcomes available to an athlete depending on their skill status and needs. Whereas the skill acquisition and performance literature is abundant, an under-researched outcome relates to the refinement of already acquired and well-established skills. Contrary to current recommendations for athletes to employ an external focus of attention and a representative practice design, Carson and Collins' (2011) [Refining and regaining skills in fixation/diversification stage performers: The Five-A Model. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4, 146–167. doi:10.1080/1750984x.2011.613682] Five-A Model requires an initial narrowed internal focus on the technical aspect needing refinement: the implication being that environments which limit external sources of information would be beneficial to achieving this task. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to (1) provide a literature-based explanation for why techniques counter to current recommendations may be (temporarily) appropriate within the skill refinement process and (2) provide empirical evidence for such efficacy. Kinematic data and self-perception reports are provided from high-level golfers attempting to consciously initiate technical refinements while executing shots onto a driving range and into a close proximity net (i.e. with limited knowledge of results). It was hypothesised that greater control over intended refinements would occur when environmental stimuli were reduced in the most unrepresentative practice condition (i.e. hitting into a net). Results confirmed this, as evidenced by reduced intra-individual movement variability for all participants’ individual refinements, despite little or no difference in mental effort reported. This research offers coaches guidance when working with performers who may find conscious recall difficult during the skill refinement process.

Different genetic factors underlie fear conditioning and episodic memory.

Fear conditioning seems to account for the acquisition of post-traumatic stress disorder, whereas conscious recall of events in aftermath of trauma reflects episodic memory. Studies show that both fear conditioning and episodic memory are heritable, but no study has evaluated whether they reflect common or separate genetic factors. To this end, we studied episodic memory and fear conditioning in 173 healthy twin pairs using visual stimuli predicting unconditioned electric shocks. Fear conditioning acquisition and extinction was determined using conditioned visual stimuli predicting unconditioned mild electric shocks, whereas electrodermal activity served as the fear learning index. Episodic memory was evaluated using cued recall of pictorial stimuli unrelated to conditioning. We used multivariate structural equation modeling to jointly analyze memory performance and acquisition as well as extinction of fear conditioning. Best-fit twin models estimated moderate genetic loadings for conditioning and memory measures, with no genetic covariation between them. Individual differences in fear conditioning and episodic memory reflect distinct genetically influenced processes, suggesting that the genetic risk for learning-induced anxiety disorders includes at least two memory-related genetic factors. These findings are consistent with the facts that the two separate learning forms are distant in their evolutionary development, involve different brain mechanisms, and support that genetically independent memory systems are pivotal in the development and maintenance of syndromes related to fear learning.

Conscious recall of different aspects of skill memory

Different mechanisms are involved in the formation of memories necessary for daily living. For example, different memory representations are formed for the practiced transitions between key-presses (i.e., pressing key “2” after “3” in “4-3-2-1”) and for the ordinal position of each key-press (i.e., pressing key “2” in the third ordinal position in “4-3-2-1”) in a motor sequence. Whether the resulting transition-based and ordinal-based memories (Song and Cohen, 2014) can be consciously recalled is unknown. Here, we studied subjects who over a week of training and testing formed transition and ordinal-based memory representations of skill for a 12-item sequence of key-presses. Afterwards, subjects were first asked to recall and type the trained sequence and then to perform random key-presses avoiding the trained sequence. The difference in the ability to purposefully recall and avoid a trained sequence represents conscious recall (Destrebecqz and Cleeremans, 2001). We report that (a) the difference in the ability to purposefully recall and to avoid the trained sequence correlated with ordinal-based but not with transition-based memory; (b) subjects with no ability to recall or avoid the trained sequence formed transition-based but not ordinal-based memories; and (c) subjects with full ability to recall and avoid the trained sequence formed both transition-based and ordinal-based memories. We conclude that ordinal-based memory can be voluntarily recalled when transition-based memory cannot, documenting a differential capacity to recall memories forming a motor skill. Understanding that different memories form a motor skill, with different neural substrates (Cohen and Squire, 1980), may help develop novel training strategies in neurorehabilitation of patients with brain lesions.

Suppressing unwanted memories reduces their unconscious influence via targeted cortical inhibition.

Suppressing retrieval of unwanted memories reduces their later conscious recall. It is widely believed, however, that suppressed memories can continue to exert strong unconscious effects that may compromise mental health. Here we show that excluding memories from awareness not only modulates medial temporal lobe regions involved in explicit retention, but also neocortical areas underlying unconscious expressions of memory. Using repetition priming in visual perception as a model task, we found that excluding memories of visual objects from consciousness reduced their later indirect influence on perception, literally making the content of suppressed memories harder for participants to see. Critically, effective connectivity and pattern similarity analysis revealed that suppression mechanisms mediated by the right middle frontal gyrus reduced activity in neocortical areas involved in perceiving objects and targeted the neural populations most activated by reminders. The degree of inhibitory modulation of the visual cortex while people were suppressing visual memories predicted, in a later perception test, the disruption in the neural markers of sensory memory. These findings suggest a neurobiological model of how motivated forgetting affects the unconscious expression of memory that may be generalized to other types of memory content. More generally, they suggest that the century-old assumption that suppression leaves unconscious memories intact should be reconsidered.

English

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Awareness during general anesthesia is a frightening experience, which may result in serious emotional injury and post-traumatic disorders. Awareness have been reported with many anesthetic techniques, particularly surgical patient populations such as those requiring anesthesia for Obstetrics, Major trauma, and cardiac surgery are known to experience a high incidence (7-43%) of awareness. In our study we have made an attempt to evaluate the incidence of awareness in surgical patients under general anesthesia using inhalational agent (Halothane) with Nitrous oxide. In this study we have evaluated the incidence of awareness by using Blood Pressure, Heart Rate, Sweating, Tears score intraoperatively and interviewing patients post- operatively by standard questionnaire. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Hundred patients undergoing surgical procedures under general Anesthesia were randomly selected for the study. They were posted to undergo surgery from November 2011 to July 2013. Parameters observed: Intra- operatively Blood Pressure, Heart Rate, Sweating, Tears scoring was done at 0 minutes in the operation theatre before induction and 10 minutes after intubation and monitored every 10 minutes till the end of surgery. All the patients were interviewed in the post-operative period soon after complete recovery and 24 hours later again with a set of 10 questions (Questionnaire method). RESULTS: In our study we have a standard interview questionnaire in the post operative period to study the incidence of awareness. We found that none of the patients had conscious recall of the events during surgery. In our study of 100 patients none of the patients had awareness. Injection atropine 20 mcg/kg body weight and injection pethidine 1mg/kg body weight were given as premedication. Induction agent used was injection thiopental sodium 5mg/kg body weight and maintained with Nitrous oxide, Halothane as inhalational agent and muscle relaxation was achieved with injection pancuronium 0.1mg/kg body weight. There was an increase in blood pressure and heart rate > 30 mm of hg or 30 beats/min greater than the base line respectively (score 2 on Blood Pressure, Heart Rate, Sweating, Tears score), were seen in 5 seconds. However there were no abnormalities seen in three records and the heart rate were in normal range (score 0 or 1 Blood Pressure, Heart Rate, Sweating, Tears score). With regards to more objective parameters in the anesthetic records, increase in blood pressure (>30 mm of hg) and heart rate (.30 beats/min) were observed in 67% of the awareness cases and 21% in matched controls. (p=0.001). The concentration of halothane was increased from 0.2% to 0.6% in one patient who had both sweating and tears and with a sweating score of 2 in PRST scoring. 2 patients had tears and 1 patient had sweating and none of the patients had awareness. In our study patients who had anxious mental status pre-operatively showed exaggerated blood pressure intraoperatively.

Retention beyond the threshold: Test-enhanced relearning of forgotten information

The effect of repeated testing on delayed relearning of paired associates was investigated. Participants learned two lists of Lithuanian-Dutch word pairs until reaching the criterion of one correct recall from long-term memory. In one condition, items subsequently received three post-retrieval study trials and in the other condition items received three post-retrieval test trials. Participants returned one week later for delayed recall and relearning. Post-retrieval test trials resulted in better delayed recall performance than post-retrieval study trials. Moreover, we found that the items that were repeatedly studied or tested one week prior to relearning were relearned faster than a new set of similar (not previously presented) items. Most importantly, items were relearned faster when they had previously been learned under conditions of post-retrieval testing than items learned under conditions of post-retrieval study. Taken together, the results indicate that the benefits of repeated testing are not just limited to conscious recall on a delayed test. Repeated testing during initial learning is also a very effective strategy to enhance delayed relearning.

Awareness - Klinische Relevanz

Awareness is a rare but typical complication during general anesthesia, with a reported incidence of 0.1- 0.2% to 1% (high risk patients) in adults and probably much higher in children with 0.2 -1.2%. Awareness is defined as consciousness during general anesthesia with explicit (conscious) recall of memories.Wakefulness during anesthesia can meet DSM-IV criteria of trauma. Significant long-term psychological sequelae (e.g. post-traumatic stress disorder) may occur.Recommendations of the German Society of Anesthesiologists have been developed according to the ASA Task Force for intraoperative awareness and brain function monitoring.The article focuses on risk factors and sequelae of awareness, explains the options for detection of intraoperative wakefulness and postoperative memories and makes recommendations for prevention and handling of awareness.

The topography of awareness: a classification of intra‐operative cognitive states

The topography of awareness: a classification of intra‐operative cognitive states

Mental workload as a key factor in clinical decision making

The decision making process is central to the practice of a clinician and has traditionally been described in terms of the hypothetico-deductive model. More recently, models adapted from cognitive psychology, such as the dual process and script theories have proved useful in explaining patterns of practice not consistent with purely cognitive based practice. The purpose of this paper is to introduce the concept of mental workload as a key determinant of the type of cognitive processing used by clinicians. Published research appears to be consistent with 'schemata' based cognition as the principle mode of working for those engaged in complex tasks under time pressure. Although conscious processing of factual data is also used, it may be the primary mode of cognition only in situations where time pressure is not a factor. Further research on the decision making process should be based on outcomes which are not dependant on conscious recall of past actions or events and include a measure of mental workload. This further appears to support the concept of the patient, within the clinical environment, as the most effective learning resource.

Expression of nonconscious knowledge via ideomotor actions

Ideomotor actions are behaviours that are unconsciously initiated and express a thought rather than a response to a sensory stimulus. The question examined here is whether ideomotor actions can also express nonconscious knowledge. We investigated this via the use of implicit long-term semantic memory, which is not available to conscious recall. We compared accuracy of answers to yes/no questions using both volitional report and ideomotor response (Ouija board response). Results show that when participants believed they knew the answer, responses in the two modalities were similar. But when they believed they were guessing, accuracy was at chance for volitional report (50%), but significantly higher for Ouija response (65%). These results indicate that implicit semantic memory can be expressed through ideomotor actions. They also suggest that this approach can provide an interesting new methodology for studying implicit processes in cognition.

Obtaining separate measures for implicit and explicit memory

In this paper a new model, the Implicit/Explicit Separation (IES) model, is developed and applied. The model is designed to obtain separate probability measures for explicit memory storage, implicit memory storage, fractional storage, and non-storage. The model is needed because memory research has shown the importance of the distinction between a conscious memory of a target event and a memory residue that is unable to support conscious recall or confident recognition, but it is still able to support guessing at rates above chance. Maximum likelihood and population-parameter mapping estimates for the parameters of the IES model are provided. The accuracy of parameter estimates is studied as a function of sample size. Three experiments are reported to demonstrate how the IES model is used to achieve a more fine grained assessment of the quality of information storage. These experiments also provide strong validation support for the IES model itself. Across the three experiments, each of the four components for representing target information (explicit, implicit, fractional, and non-storage) demonstrates a different pattern. The IES model is discussed in terms of alternative models such as the dual-process model and the process-dissociation model.

Neural Coding, Flash Memory Stores and Symbolic Representation

Neural Coding, Flash Memory Stores and Symbolic Representation