Conifer Needles Research Articles

Extraction and Chromatographic Determination of Shikimic Acid in Chinese Conifer Needles with 1-Benzyl-3-methylimidazolium Bromide Ionic Liquid Aqueous Solutions

An ionic liquids-based ultrasound-assisted extraction (ILUAE) method was successfully developed for extracting shikimic acid from conifer needles. Eleven 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium ionic liquids with different cations and anions were investigated and 1-benzyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide solution was selected as the solvent. The conditions for ILUAE, including the ionic liquid concentration, ultrasound power, ultrasound time, and liquid-solid ratio, were optimized. The proposed method had good recovery (99.37%–100.11%) and reproducibility (RSD, n = 6; 3.6%). ILUAE was an efficient, rapid, and simple sample preparation technique that showed high reproducibility. Based on the results, a number of plant species, namely, Picea koraiensis, Picea meyeri, Pinus elliottii, and Pinus banksiana, were identified as among the best resources of shikimic acid.

A Multi-Analytical Approach to the Use of Conifer Needles as Passive Samplers of Particulate Matter and Organic Pollutants

The present work regards the analysis of airborne pollutants emitted by an electric arc furnace steel making plant at a test site in Northern Italy and collected by conifer needles. The spatial and temporal trends of accumulation of Mn, Zn, Fe, Cr, Pb, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans and polychlorinated biphenyls dioxin revealed that the contribution from the steel making plant has never been particularly high, whereas traffic emerged as a significant pollution source. The benefits of combining bulk and single particle analysis in air pollution studies from different sources are also discussed.

Unbiased estimation of chloroplast number in mesophyll cells: advantage of a genuine three-dimensional approach.

Chloroplast number per cell is a frequently examined quantitative anatomical parameter, often estimated by counting chloroplast profiles in two-dimensional (2D) sections of mesophyll cells. However, a mesophyll cell is a three-dimensional (3D) structure and this has to be taken into account when quantifying its internal structure. We compared 2D and 3D approaches to chloroplast counting from different points of view: (i) in practical measurements of mesophyll cells of Norway spruce needles, (ii) in a 3D model of a mesophyll cell with chloroplasts, and (iii) using a theoretical analysis. We applied, for the first time, the stereological method of an optical disector based on counting chloroplasts in stacks of spruce needle optical cross-sections acquired by confocal laser-scanning microscopy. This estimate was compared with counting chloroplast profiles in 2D sections from the same stacks of sections. Comparing practical measurements of mesophyll cells, calculations performed in a 3D model of a cell with chloroplasts as well as a theoretical analysis showed that the 2D approach yielded biased results, while the underestimation could be up to 10-fold. We proved that the frequently used method for counting chloroplasts in a mesophyll cell by counting their profiles in 2D sections did not give correct results. We concluded that the present disector method can be efficiently used for unbiased estimation of chloroplast number per mesophyll cell. This should be the method of choice, especially in coniferous needles and leaves with mesophyll cells with lignified cell walls where maceration methods are difficult or impossible to use.

A search for raw materials for the isolation of shikimic acid

The content of shikimic acid in the vegetative parts of a number of plants growing in the Altai Territory has been studied. The greatest content of shikimic acid (about 1.5%) was found in the coniferous needles of Scots pine. Shikimic acid accumulated in buckwheat cells cultivated in vitro on glyphosate-containing medium. The best results were obtained with buckwheat explants cultivated in vitro on Murashige and Skoog nutrient medium in the presence of 0.5 × 10−3 mg/L of glyphosate.

Altitudinal and Spatial Signature of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Soil, Lichen, Conifer Needles, and Bark of the Southeast Tibetan Plateau: Implications for Sources and Environmental Cycling

The southeast Tibetan Plateau (TP) of China is characterized by mountain-valley topography and is usually the main channel for the warm and humid airstream from South Asia caused by the Indian monsoon. In this study, it is hypothesized that some semivolatile organic pollutants such as organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can be transported from the densely populated and intensely agricultural Indian Subcontinent via the Indian monsoon and then cold-trapped by the mountains of the southeast TP. Samples of soils, lichens, conifer barks, and needles were collected from five transects to investigate the accumulation patterns of OCPs and PAHs in this region. The OCP concentrations were found to generally increase with increasing altitude in transects 1, 3, and 4, while such trends were insignificant in most cases for PAHs. Total organic carbon/lipid based normalization of concentrations does not strengthen the correlations with altitude in most cases. Chemical concentration ratios in soils of forest areas to clearing sites without forest cover (F/C) showed significantly positive correlation with log K(oa) and negative correlation with log K(aw) of PAHs, suggesting that the role of forests as a filter and forest soil as a final sink are more pronounced for more lipophilic compounds. A lower α-/γ-HCH ratio and higher ratios of DDT/DDE and o,p'-DDT/p,p'-DDT compared with the technical products suggest the usage of lindane (γ-HCH), DDT, and dicofol in neighboring countries. The suitability of using different sample matrices (soil, lichen, conifer bark, and needles) as passive air samplers in remote regions is evaluated.

A case of extensive conifer needle browning in northwestern Ontario in 2012: Winter drying or freezing damage?

In the spring of 2012, conifers in a large area in northwestern Ontario exhibited severe needle browning prior to budbreak, affecting more than 250 000 ha of forests north and west of Thunder Bay. Examination of weather data suggests that damage was caused by a combination of warm temperatures in March resulting in dehardening followed by freezing temperatures in April that were below a critical value. Damage was similar in nature to that observed in 2007 in northeastern Ontario, but in this case occurred earlier in the year and affected a larger area. Areas of northern Ontario where trees were affected were easily separated from those where no damage was observed using daily minimum temperature and cumulative growing degree day data. We suggest that a new term, winter freezing damage, be used to describe conifer needle and bud damage prior to budbreak when a period of warm temperatures in late winter/early spring followed by a period of sufficiently cold freezing temperatures causes damage to forest stands.

Suitability of Illumina deep mRNA sequencing for reliable gene expression profiling in a non-model conifer species (Pseudotsuga menziesii)

Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir) is an ideal model system to study the effect of local adaptation and intraspecific variation in transcriptome responses to the environment. Nonetheless, the lack of genomic resources and standardized microarray platforms for gene expression profiling has been a limitation to test the hypothesis on transcriptome organization and variation. Only recently, deep mRNA sequencing has become a promising alternative to overcome the present limitations. However, information on the transcript abundance distribution is needed for unbiased gene expression profiling from mRNA sequencing data. Since this information is not available for adult conifer needle tissue, we inferred the transcript abundance distribution and tested the effect of sequencing depth on the reliable detection and quantification of transcripts from the needle tissue of 50-year-old Douglas-fir trees. We obtained a similar distribution of GO-slim categories in our mRNA-sequencing libraries and in previously published putative unique transcripts (PUTs) for Douglas-fir, that were used as alignment reference. However, the GO-slim distribution in the Douglas-fir libraries and the Douglas-fir PUTs differed from the GO-slim distributions reported from mRNA deep sequencing libraries obtained from Arabidopsis thaliana leaf tissue. Apparently, several highly abundant PUTs associated with proteins involved in photosynthesis were limiting the benefits of increased sequencing depth. Simulations and empirical data indicated that a 3-fold increase from 5 to 15 million aligned reads results in about twice the number of PUTs that surpass the 100 aligned reads threshold that was used for robust transcript quantification.

The problem of conifer species migration lag in the Pacific Northwest region since the last glaciation

Multiproxy evidence indicates that warmer-than-present summers became established in Eastern Beringia as early as 14,000–13,000 years ago, but the dispersal of spruces, pines, cedars and hemlocks across the Pacific Northwest (PNW) region of southern Alaska did not begin until at least 1500 years afterwards, and took many thousands of years to be completed. There are many potential reasons for this slow spread of PNW conifers towards their modern range limits. The absence of mycorrhizae in the soils of southern Alaska may have slowed conifer establishment. The availability of soil moisture was another limiting factor. With the exception of Pinus contorta, the other PNW conifers become established most readily from seeds that fall on moist, shaded substrates, thus they are not good pioneering species. Competition with alder and birch played an important role, especially along Prince William Sound and the Kenai Peninsula. Alder or alder and birch dominated these regions until the mid- to late Holocene. The other key element for most PNW conifer species is the precipitation regime. The hemlocks, cedars and Sitka spruce are not drought-hardy. So although the PNW temperature regime may have been warm enough in early postglacial times to support the growth of PNW conifers, it was probably too dry for them to successfully become established in new regions. The conflation of these environmental factors limits our present understanding of the problem, but the recent trend of multi-proxy analysis in Quaternary paleoecology will certainly sharpen our reconstructions. Such proxies as conifer needle stomata and insect fossil remains hold significant promise.

Effects of microhabitat and growth form on bryophyte mortality associated with leaf litter burial in a boreal spruce forest

AbstractQuestionsDo mortality rates of boreal bryophytes associated with leaf litter burial vary with degree of shelter on forest floor microsites in spruce‐dominated forests? Do erect and prostrate species respond similarly? What is the relative importance of deciduous leaves (from aspen and birch) vs conifer needles as bryophyte mortality agents?LocationBoreal spruce forests of central Sweden.MethodsA transplant study examining mortality was set up with four different bryophyte species: two creeping, prostrate liverworts (Calypogeia integristipula and Lepidozia reptans) and two more erect mosses (Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus and Hylocomiastrum umbratum). We tested for differences in mortality rates associated with leaf litter burial in three microhabitats differing in degree of shelter on the forest floor, i.e. sheltered (large boulders, tree bases of spruce) and unsheltered (open forest floor).ResultsAfter two growing seasons, 12.7% of the bryophyte transplants (40 out of 316, of which 37 transplants were prostrate liverworts) were dead, presumably due to litter burial. These two prostrate liverworts displayed significantly higher mortality rates close to boulders and at tree bases compared to unsheltered forest floors. Furthermore, although only comprising a small portion of the canopy (<10%), deciduous litter accounted for 53% of all transplants that were buried by litter, compared to 47% for conifer needle litter.ConclusionWe find fine‐scale spatial patchiness in the responses of bryophytes to litter fall. Mortality of prostrate liverworts associated with litter burial varies among microhabitats on the forest floor, with significantly higher mortality at sheltered microsites (here exemplified by boulders and tree bases) compared to erect moss species. Bryophytes close to microtopographic structures (e.g. boulders and trees) are more strongly exposed to litter burial, but such structures can also function as refuges under disturbance events such as clear‐cuts and windthrows. In addition, they may contain convex surfaces that accumulate less litter than flat or convex forest floor surfaces. The observed large effect of litter burial associated with bryophyte mortality, and the variation among microhabitats and species growth forms, suggest that incorporation of litter fall is of vital importance for our understanding of the dynamics of forest bryophyte communities.

Environmental Influences on Winter Desiccation of Picea glauca Foliage at Treeline, and Implications for Treeline Dynamics in Northern Manitoba

Winter desiccation and mortality of coniferous foliage are important determinants of carbon balance in trees and thus can influence the location of the subarctic treeline ecotone. The purpose of this study was (i) to assess variation in winter desiccation and viability of first-year conifer needles at several heights and orientations along tree boles across the forest-tundra ecotone near Churchill, Manitoba, from 2008 to 2010, and (ii) determine if there is a noticeable influence of needle health on ongoing treeline advance in the area. Growing season air temperatures around Churchill were significantly cooler in 2009, resulting in the development of significantly shorter needles during 2010. Minimum epidermal conductance (g min) varied little with height on the tree or orientation to the prevailing wind direction. The highest values of g min occurred in 2010, when temperatures during the previous June (t — 1) were 2.9 °C cooler than normal, and the lowest g min occurred during 2009 when June (t — 1) was 1.2 °C warmer than normal. There were few correlations between needle viability and water content, and little consistency among years. However, significant correlations occurred during all 3 yr in northwest-facing needles at treeline, which suggests that treeline trees could be the most susceptible to water loss and dieback, relative to forest and tundra stems. Despite the occurrence of some winter desiccation, death of coniferous foliage (<10%) and sapling mortality (4–17%) was low, and rapid height growth of live saplings suggests passage through the wind-blown snow abrasion zone does not significantly impede wood production. Ostensibly winter desiccation and foliage mortality does not significantly influence sapling height growth and treeline dynamics around Churchill.

Accurate measurement of optical properties of narrow leaves and conifer needles with a typical integrating sphere and spectroradiometer

Accurate information on the optical properties (reflectance and transmittance spectra) of single leaves is important for an ecophysiological understanding of light use by leaves, radiative transfer models and remote sensing of terrestrial ecosystems. In general, leaf optical properties are measured with an integrating sphere and a spectroradiometer. However, this method is usually difficult to use with grass leaves and conifer needles because they are too narrow to cover the sample port of a typical integrating sphere. Although ways to measure the optical properties of narrow leaves have been suggested, they have problems. We propose a new measurement protocol and calculation algorithms. The protocol does not damage sample leaves and is valid for various types of leaves, including green and senescent. We tested our technique with leaves of Aucuba japonica, an evergreen broadleaved shrub, and compared the spectral data of whole leaves and narrow strips of the leaves. The reflectance and transmittance of the strips matched those of the whole leaves, indicating that our technique can accurately estimate the optical properties of narrow leaves. Tests of conifer needles confirmed the applicability.

Needle browning and death in the flagged crown of Abies mariesii in the timberline ecotone of the alpine region in central Japan

In the flagged crown, which is asymmetric growth formed by severe stresses during winter in alpine regions, needles of evergreen conifers often became brown and died in early spring, but did not in a cushion-shaped crown. Needle browning and death is thought to occur by increasing transpiration due to a thinner cuticle or mechanical damage to the cuticle by wind-born snow and ice particles. To confirm whether the needle browning and death in the flagged crown of Abies mariesii Mast., in the alpine region of Japan conform with this concept, we assessed mechanical damage of the needle cuticle in a timberline ecotone and evaluated the effect of cuticle thickness on cuticular resistance. Mechanical damage on needle cuticles of A. mariesii was not observed. In the cushion-shaped crown, epicuticular wax covered the cuticle and plugged stomatal antechambers. In the flagged crown, epicuticular wax was mostly absent. Cuticular resistance in the flagged crown was lower than that in the cushion-shaped crown. However, the cuticle in the flagged crown was thicker than that in the cushion-shaped crown. The needle browning and death in the flagged crown of A. mariesii occurred even though needle cuticles were not mechanically damaged. The thicker cuticle of the flagged crown may play a role in other stresses. To estimate desiccation stress in relation to the cuticle, we need to elucidate not only cuticular resistance and cuticle thickness, but also cuticle quality and structure.

Facultative and constitutive pigment effects on the Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI) in sun and shade conifer needles

Leaf pigment content and spectral reflectance were examined in four conifer species from the Pacific Northwest and Canadian boreal forest. Our goal was to evaluate the causes of within- and between-stand variation in the Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI), an indicator of xanthophyll cycle activity and carotenoid pigment content that often scales with photosynthetic light-use efficiency. Both the dark-state PRI values and the change in PRI upon dark-light transition (ΔPRI) were measured in situ in leaves from different canopy positions (top vs. bottom) having contrasting light histories (sun vs. shade). PRI varied with species, canopy position, and with the pool sizes of several photoprotective carotenoid pigments (relative to chlorophyll). Upper-canopy leaves had a greater Δ PRI than their shaded counterparts lower in the canopy, reflecting a higher investment of the photoprotective xanthophyll cycle pigments for sun-exposed top-canopy leaves. These results indicate that the relative concentration of ...

Physical interpretation of the difference in drop size distributions of leaf drips among tree species

Differences in drop size distribution (DSD) of leaf drips among tree species have been estimated and physically interpreted to clarify the leaf drip generation process. Leaf drip generation experiments for nine species were conducted in an indoor location without foliage vibration using an automatic mist spray. Broad-leaved species produced a similar DSD among species whose leaves had a matte surface and a second similar DSD among species whose leaves had a coated surface. The matte broad leaves produced a larger and wider range of DSDs than the coated broad leaves. Coated coniferous needles had a wider range of DSDs than the coated broad leaves and different DSDs were observed for different species. The species with shorter dense needles generated a larger DSD. The leaf drip diameter was calculated through the estimation of a state of equilibrium of a hanging drop on the leaves based on physical theory. The calculations indicated that the maximum diameter of leaf drips was determined by the contact angle, and the range of DSDs was determined by the variation in contact length and the contact diameter at the hanging points. The results revealed that leaf drip DSD changed due to variations in leaf hydrophobicity, leaf roughness, leaf geometry and leaf inclination among the different tree species. This study allows the modelization of throughfall DSD. Furthermore, it indicates the possibility of interpreting canopy water processes from canopy water storage to drainage through the contact angle and leaf drip DSD.

Seasonal variation of the 137Cs level and its relationship with potassium and carbon levels in conifer needles

Seasonal variations in foliar 137Cs levels were examined in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in western Finland. Our aim was to test the occurrence of seasonal variation in contents and concentrations of 137Cs, potassium and carbon in needles. The study focused on analysing levels of total 137Cs in the three youngest needle age classes and comparing them to the levels of potassium and carbon. Spruce and pine needles were collected from 50- and 65-year-old stands on 18 sampling occasions between April 1996 and February 1997. Phases of intensive growth, needle elongation and dormancy were apparent in the time series for the needle contents and activity concentration of 137Cs, both of which varied according to needle age class and tree species. The sequence of phases with a temporal fluctuation of needle contents, activity concentrations of 137Cs and concentrations of K and carbon varied occasionally, and the efficiency of their translocation revealed some differences in the dynamics of 137Cs, K and carbon in spruce and pine. The data clearly showed that the needles' K contents responded strongly to changes in K demand from other parts of the tree due to seasonal changes and that these responses were stronger than the associated retranslocations of 137Cs, particularly in Scots pine. During intensive growth, K was less mobile than 137Cs in the needles. The uptake of 137Cs by current-year needles is simultaneously affected by uptake from the soil via the roots and retranslocation from other internal sources, and both of these processes affect the observed transfer rates during the growth period. Our results provided information on the transfer rates and revealed differentiation of root uptake and retranslocation of 137Cs in needles. The study can support dynamic modelling of atmospheric 137Cs contamination in forests.

Foliage type specific susceptibility to ozone in Picea abies, Pinus cembra and Larix decidua at treeline: A synthesis

Cumulative ozone uptake (COU, mmolm−2) and O3 flux (FO3, nmolm−2s−1) were related to physiological, morphological and biochemical characteristics of field-grown mature evergreen Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.], Cembran pine [Pinus cembra L.], and deciduous European larch [Larix decidua Mill.] trees at treeline. The threshold COU causing a statistically significant decline in photosynthetic capacity (Amax) ranged between 19.6mmolm−2 in current-year needles of evergreen conifers and 22.0 6mmolm−2 in short-shoot needles of deciduous L. decidua subjected to exposure periods of ≥84 and ≥43 days, respectively. The higher O3 sensitivity of deciduous L. decidua than of evergreen P abies and P. cembra was associated with differences in FO3 and specific leaf area (SLA), both being significantly higher in L. decidua. FO3 was 5.9nmolm−2s−1 in L. decidua and 2.7nmolm−2s−1 in evergreen conifers. Species-dependent differences were also related to detoxification capacity expressed through total surface area based concentrations of reduced ascorbate and α-tocopherol that both increased with SLA. Findings suggest that differences in O3 sensitivity between evergreen and deciduous conifers can be attributed to foliage type specific differences in SLA, the latter determining physiological and biochemical characteristics of the treeline conifers.

Boreal forest conifer extracts: potential natural additives for acrylic polyurethane coatings for the protection of heat-treated jack pine

Among consumers, heat-treated wood recently gained more importance due its attractive darker color along with several other advantages such as improved biological resistance, dimensional stability, and thermal insulating properties. However, exposure to the exterior environment drastically changes the attractive darker color of this product. From dark brown, it becomes almost white. For this reason, development of a nontoxic transparent coating which can protect the heat-treated wood from photodegradation is very important. Addition of UV stabilizers (UV absorbers, HALS, antioxidant) is necessary for transparent coatings in order to filter the harmful UV/VIS radiation. In this present study, the effectiveness of natural antioxidants, extracted from conifer barks or needles from trees in protecting the color of wood, as additives to acrylic polyurethane coating is examined. Also, their UV/VIS absorption capacities and semi-quantitative component analyses have been presented. The toxicity of these new products was also evaluated on human normal skin cells due to ever increasing environmental legislation. The chemical modification of acrylic polyurethane coating containing conifer bark and needle extract were examined by ATR–FTIR analysis. Promising results were obtained for these natural antioxidants which showed very high UV absorption characteristics and antioxidant activity.

Hydraulic efficiency and safety of vascular and non-vascular components in Pinus pinaster leaves

Leaves, the distal section of the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum, exhibit the lowest water potentials in a plant. In contrast to angiosperm leaves, knowledge of the hydraulic architecture of conifer needles is scant. We investigated the hydraulic efficiency and safety of Pinus pinaster needles, comparing different techniques. The xylem hydraulic conductivity (k(s)) and embolism vulnerability (P(50)) of both needle and stem were measured using the cavitron technique. The conductance and vulnerability of whole needles were measured via rehydration kinetics, and Cryo-SEM and 3D X-ray microtomographic observations were used as reference tools to validate physical measurements. The needle xylem of P. pinaster had lower hydraulic efficiency (k(s) = 2.0 × 10(-4) m(2) MPa(-1) s(-1)) and safety (P(50) = - 1.5 MPa) than stem xylem (k(s) = 7.7 × 10(-4) m(2) MPa(-1) s(-1); P(50) = - 3.6 to - 3.2 MPa). P(50) of whole needles (both extra-vascular and vascular pathways) was - 0.5 MPa, suggesting that non-vascular tissues were more vulnerable than the xylem. During dehydration to - 3.5 MPa, collapse and embolism in xylem tracheids, and gap formation in surrounding tissues were observed. However, a discrepancy in hydraulic and acoustic results appeared compared with visualizations, arguing for greater caution with these techniques when applied to needles. Our results indicate that the most distal parts of the water transport pathway are limiting for hydraulics of P. pinaster. Needle tissues exhibit a low hydraulic efficiency and low hydraulic safety, but may also act to buffer short-term water deficits, thus preventing xylem embolism.

Evaluation of a liquid chromatography method for compound‐specific δ13C analysis of plant carbohydrates in alkaline media

Isotope analysis of carbohydrates is important for improved understanding of plant carbon metabolism and plant physiological response to the environment. High-performance liquid chromatography/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (HPLC/IRMS) for direct compound-specific δ(13)C measurements of soluble carbohydrates has recently been developed, but the still challenging sample preparation and the fact that no single method is capable of separating all compounds of interest hinder its wide-spread application. Here we tested in detail a chromatography method in alkaline media. We examined the most suitable chromatographic conditions for HPLC/IRMS analysis of carbohydrates in aqueous conifer needle extracts using a CarboPac PA20 anion-exchange column with NaOH eluent, paying specific attention to compound yields, carbon isotope fractionation processes and the reproducibility of the method. Furthermore, we adapted and calibrated sample preparation methods for HPLC/IRMS analysis. OnGuard II cartridges were used for sample purification. Good peak separation and highly linear and reproducible concentration and δ(13)C measurements were obtained. The alkaline eluent was observed to induce isomerization of hexoses, detected as reduced yields and (13)C fractionation of the affected compounds. A reproducible pre-purification method providing ~100% yield for the carbohydrate compounds of interest was calibrated. The good level of peak separation obtained in this study is reflected in the good precision and linearity of concentration and δ(13)C results. The data provided crucial information on the behaviour of sugars in LC analysis with alkaline media. The observations highlight the importance for the application of compound-matched standard solution for the detection and correction of instrumental biases in concentration and δ(13)C analysis performed under identical chromatographic conditions. The calibrated pre-purification method is well suited for studies with complex matrices that disable the use of a spiked internal standard for the detection of procedural losses.

MOLECULAR PRESERVATION OF CENOZOIC CONIFER FOSSIL LAGERSTATTEN FROM BANKS ISLAND, THE CANADIAN ARCTIC

Abstract The molecular preservation of exceptionally preserved conifer needles from middle Miocene and Pliocene deposits on Banks Island, Canada, was investigated using pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS). Solvent-extracted residues from Miocene Larix, Glyptostrobus, and Pinus, Pliocene Picea, and their associated bulk material, yielded abundant polysaccharide pyrolysis products, such as 2-methylfuran, 2-furaldehyde, and levoglucosan, indicating excellent molecular preservation. Comparison of pyrolysates of individual plant taxa and bulk material from the same deposits revealed the dominance of particular plant taxa in these high latitude floras. Comparison with fossil Lagerstatten from Ellesmere Island (late Paleocene) and Axel Heiberg Island (middle Eocene), both in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and Clarkia in Idaho, United States (middle Miocene), demonstrated that the quality of molecular preservation of material from Banks Island is similar to that of Axel Heiberg Island and ...