Congruity Theory Research Articles

Islamic banking adoption: invoking the congruity paradigm

PurposeThis study aims to explore whether customers’ perceived congruity between their self-concept and the brand personality of the Islamic banking system determines their intention to adopt Islamic banking services.Design/methodology/approachThe authors use primary data collected through a structured questionnaire from 375 Malaysian bank customers. The scales were tested for psychometric soundness before the final data analysis. The authors examined the hypothesized linkages in the AMOS software package through structural equation modeling.FindingsCustomers’ actual self, ideal self and social self-congruity significantly predict their intention to adopt Islamic banking. However, the impact of actual self-congruity on Islamic banking adoption is stronger for publicly self-conscious customers. In contrast, public self-consciousness dampens the effect of ideal and social self-congruity on Islamic banking adoption.Originality/valueDigressing from the conventional utilitarian position, this study offers a novel contribution to the Islamic banking literature by presenting an identity perspective of the determinants of Islamic banking adoption. The primary highlight of this study is the deployment of the congruity theory to emphasize the role of the customer’s self-concept in explaining her intention to adopt Islamic banking services.

Exploring athletes’ gendered views of coaches and their impact of coach competency ratings

This study draws on social role theory, role congruity theory, and the black sheep effect to explore athletes’ gendered perceptions of coach competence. The study relied on a sample of 308 New Zealand athletes across sports levels and modalities who completed an online survey. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four vignettes, in which coach gender (female vs. male) and coaching style (communal vs. agentic) were manipulated, and athlete gender was considered. The results show that male and female coaches did not receive significantly different coach competency scores (relational and strategic competencies), that a communal coaching style was linked to higher ratings in both relational and strategic competencies, and that the interplay of athlete gender, coach gender, and gender conforming/non-conforming coaching style did not significantly affect coach competence scores. However, participants’ comments to the open-ended question presented at the end of the survey suggest that athletes still hold gendered views of coaching competence at the elite level. We discuss the research and practical implications of our findings.

The impact of changing engineering perceptions on women’s attitudes and behavioral intentions towards engineering pursuits

BackgroundWomen are underrepresented in the field of engineering within academic and professional settings. Based upon premises outlined by social role theory and goal congruity theory, a key factor that contributes to this underrepresentation is a gendered societal belief that there is a disconnect between engineering (seen as more agentic, or self-oriented) and women’s values and abilities (which are believed to be more communal, or other-oriented). While there is evidence that this perceived disconnect influences women’s pursuit of engineering, the extent to which an intervention could realistically counter these perceptions at key points along the engineering pathway has not been explored. Across two studies, we examine the impact of a communal-based intervention (in which we frame engineering majors and careers in more, though not exclusively, communally oriented ways) on women’s engineering-related attitudes and behavioral intentions at two points along the academic-employment pathway: women’s major selection and women’s job selection.ResultsStudy 1 found that women with undeclared majors had more positive attitudes (confidence and interest) towards engineering majors when engineering major descriptions were framed as more communal versus more agentic. However, there was no impact on their behavioral intentions to pursue the major. Study 2 found that women with engineering majors were more confident in their ability to be successful in a job role and were more likely to apply when the job role was framed as more communal as compared to more agentic. However, they did not indicate greater interest in the job role.ConclusionsTesting this intervention on relevant populations advances the literature by providing greater evidence for the potential of such an intervention to meaningfully address women’s underrepresentation at multiple points along the engineering pathway. Furthermore, this study provides evidence that a messaging-based intervention is impactful with a realistic representation of engineering as both an agentic and communally oriented field, which ensures that the retention of those attracted to the field is not negatively impacted by idealistic messaging. While addressing women’s pursuit of engineering is important, work must continue to seek ways to always improve women’s experience in engineering contexts as well.

Polychronicity fit and turnover intentions in projects: the mediating roles of exhaustion and work overload

PurposeDespite the deployment of state-of-the-art methodologies for project management, employee turnover in projects remains high. Such turnover has significant costs in terms of replacing personnel, potential deadline overruns and financial expenditure. Employee turnover in project contexts may stem from time-related issues associated with multiple parallel projects and short deadlines. Using person–environment fit and time congruence theories, this research examines the relationship between employee turnover intentions and individual–organizational (I–O) polychronicity fit, which captures the degree of match between individuals’ and organizational preferences for focusing on multiple tasks simultaneously.Design/methodology/approachSurvey data were collected from 309 software project employees in Pakistan. Hypotheses were tested using polynomial regressions and response surface modeling.FindingsI–O polychronicity fit is related to turnover intentions. Turnover intentions are lower when I–O polychronicity fit occurs on the lower end of the polychronicity continuum, whereas turnover intentions are higher when fit is observed on the higher end of the polychronicity continuum. The relationship between I–O polychronicity fit and turnover intentions is significantly explained by exhaustion and perceptions of work overload.Practical implicationsThe study’s insights provide recommendations for organizations to optimally manage multitasking to help retain project employees.Originality/valueThese findings extend our understanding of the underlying mechanisms between I–O polychronicity fit and turnover intentions. Furthermore, this research expounds on how employee exhaustion and perceptions of work overload explain the relationship between I–O polychronicity fit and turnover intentions.

Unveiling the role of congruity in service robot design and deployment

PurposeThis paper aims to examine the congruency effects of physically embodied robots in service encounters, which addressed a significant research gap concerning the synthesis of robot design elements (e.g., appearance and voice) and their service purposes.Design/methodology/approachGrounded in congruity theory and human-robot interaction literature, this study conducted a pretest and two experimental studies revealing the need to view robot design holistically and recognizing the pivotal role of congruity in shaping consumers’ service robot adoption. The moderating role of service purposes (utilitarian vs hedonic) was also investigated in terms of robot design and consumer reactions.FindingsConsumers generally tend to favor robots with congruent designs, particularly for utilitarian service purposes. The serial mediation through perceived congruence and perceived intelligence explains such a favorite tendency.Practical implicationsThis study advances service robot design research by highlighting the critical role of congruity in enhancing consumer engagement. It supports the use of comprehensive, congruent designs for services with utilitarian purposes and recommends adaptable designs for hedonic settings.Originality/valueThis study addressed the research gap by examining service robot design from a holistic perspective. The research findings highlight the importance of congruency effects in service robot design and deployment and provide valuable insights and guidelines to industry practitioners for optimal investment in service robots.

Social media influencers helping the world? uncovering their advantages and tipping factors in cause-related marketing

While social media influencers have manifested their convertible marketing value in sponsorship deals, brands and non-profits have also been experimenting with them to promote social causes. Whether and how influencers’ traits that contribute to their commercial success also translate to cause-related marketing is yet understudied. This research investigates the specific traits and factors that help to explain influencers’ strengths in cause-related marketing through a qualitative approach via conducting in-depth interviews. Drawing on source credibility, parasocial relation, and congruence effect, this research identified several factors that potentially contribute to followers’ receptivity toward prosocial behaviors promoted by influencers, including source credibility, parasocial relation with followers, followers’ wishful identification, and different levels of congruence (influencer-cause fit, follower-cause fit, and consistency among causes). We further explore how followers perceive influencers’ promotion of prosocial behaviors from a marketing perspective. This research contributes to our understanding of the advantages of influencers in cause-related marketing, and advance knowledge on source credibility and congruence theory in the context of influencer marketing.

“Feminine = Healthy Food” stereotype: Impact of feminine brand personality on consumer attitudes toward healthier food brands

In recent years, the severity of poor eating habits and health issues related to a poor diet has increased. Brand personality is undoubtedly essential for creating a positive evaluation of healthy foods. Prior research on food stereotypes suggests that people associate healthy foods with femininity. This study investigates the effects of gendered brand personality on healthy food brand evaluation, drawing on food stereotypes, gendered brand personality, and congruency theory. The results indicate that a feminine brand personality enhances consumer evaluation of healthier food brands more than a masculine brand personality. Combining a feminine brand personality and healthier food brands enhances the brand evaluation of healthier foods by reinforcing perceived congruence. From a theoretical perspective, this study expands the literature on brand personalities and healthy foods. From a practical perspective, this study highlights the directional aspects of brand personality construction for healthy food brands.

What drives new luxury consumption? Application of schema congruity theory and heuristic systematic framework

PurposeLuxury consumption has evolved, and two important reasons behind the change include globalization and the COVID-19 crisis. These factors have led to the rise of new luxury consumption, which is different from traditional luxury consumption. This study examines how consumers’ identities shape their intentions to consume traditional luxury and new luxury brands.Design/methodology/approachThe theoretical underpinnings of the schema congruity theory and heuristic systematic framework were applied to understand the role of identities in determining consumers’ regulatory focus, price luxuriousness inference and preference for traditional and new luxury brands.FindingsFindings suggest that the global identity of consumers shapes their promotion focus and price luxuriousness inferences. However, their local identities induce a prevention goal. Consumers with such a goal are unlikely to make price luxuriousness inferences. Further, these inferences lead to the choice of traditional luxury over new luxury brands. The results also establish the moderating effects of consumer flexibility.Originality/valueThe extant literature is inconclusive on the role of globalization in luxury consumption and ignores new luxury brands. The current study shows the impact of identities and regulatory focus on traditional and new luxury consumption. The findings also indicate consumers’ regulatory focus and price luxuriousness inference as the reasons behind the influence. The paper also implies that consumers open to renting, sharing or buying second-hand goods will prefer new luxury over traditional luxury brands.

The gendered effect of populism on innovation

This research addresses the impact of the remarkable rise in populism on innovative new ventures. Integrating institutional theory with gender role congruity theory, we reason that the surge of populist discourse by a nation's top political leaders decreases the innovativeness of new ventures, and this negative relationship is more pronounced for women entrepreneurs. We also consider two critical yet overlooked institutions, gender inequality and grammatical gender marking in the dominant languages that entrepreneurs speak, and propose that they reinforce this negative relationship. Data from 69,406 observations of entrepreneurs across 40 countries during the period of 2005–2018, analyzed with a difference-in-differences (DiD) design, support our hypotheses. Theoretical and policy implications are discussed for the challenges of promoting innovation among women entrepreneurs, in countries with greater gender inequality and where the dominant language exhibits greater intensity of grammatical gender marking, with populism on the rise worldwide.

Glass Ceiling in the Nigerian Banking Sector: Evidence from Senior Male and Female Employees

The banking and finance sector is a major employer in many countries, especially in emerging economies. Decisions made in the sector have significant implication on the economy. There is evidence that decision- making has significant implications for organisations (and, by extension, the economy) when their manage- ment teams are diverse in terms of gender. Yet only a few women are promoted to executive and managerial roles. This research qualitatively explores how senior male and female employees experience the glass ceiling in the Nigerian banking sector. We conducted 40 interviews, comprising 20 senior male executives and 20 senior female executives from 4 banks in Nigeria. Our study reveals that the glass ceiling is characterised by a male-dominated meritocratic organisational culture that is driven by the goal of profit maximisation, consis- tent with the meritocratic perspective of role congruity theory. We contribute to the extant literature on this topic by examining how women’s strategies for navigating this landscape (namely, the self-directed actions women take in order to progress in their careers) diminish men’s view of the glass ceiling, suggesting a para- dox of meritocracy. This study contributes significantly to the debates on the future of women’s progression in the banking sector in an emerging economy.

Color congruence on Instagram: the role of flow and aesthetic experience

PurposeSocial media has emerged as a prominent platform for marketers and brands to disseminate brand-related information. This study aims to investigate the impact of color congruence between themes and background on marketing effectiveness, focusing specifically on Instagram.Design/methodology/approachA laboratory experiment was conducted to investigate how color congruence between themes and background in brand posts influences flow and aesthetic experience, subsequently affecting marketing communication parameters such as brand attitude, visit intention, and eWOM on Instagram. Moreover, Adidas Originals was selected as the focal brand, and blue and white color was chosen as the primary color palette for the experimental material.FindingsThis study demonstrates that color congruence, regardless of brand layout or post, significantly influences flow and aesthetic experience, subsequently affecting marketing effectiveness.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the theoretical understanding of congruence theory and social media marketing, providing valuable insights for brands to enhance their communication through photographs and effectively manage their official Instagram accounts.

Insights Into the Effectiveness of Advertising During the Recession Caused by COVID-19

This study employs an online experimental approach to explore why an appropriate message appeal that resonates with consumers is crucial during a recession, rather than reducing investments in marketing, such as advertising spending. Drawing upon congruity theory and the accessibility–diagnosticity framework, the results of this experimental study demonstrate an interaction effect between message appeals and the state of a recession on consumers’ booking intentions. Furthermore, this effect is mediated by perceived advertisement diagnosticity, but only in the context of a price discount appeal in advertisements during a recession. This research contributes to extending the existing literature by examining the dynamic relationship between message appeals and the state of a recession on consumers’ behavioral intentions, mediated by their perceived advertisement diagnosticity. This explanation plays a significant role in bridging the gap in the lack of theoretical reasoning regarding relationships beyond the conceptual threshold through empirical testing. Second, the results of this study suggest more effective and actionable propositions for marketing and advertising professionals.

Is the Future Female? Lessons from a Conjoint Experiment on Voter Preferences in Six Arab Countries

Despite growing evidence of pro-female bias in the electorate elsewhere, conventional wisdom holds that voters in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) prefer male candidates, presumably due to sexism. We test this conventional wisdom using a conjoint experiment administered to over 30,000 respondents in six MENA countries. We find both male and female respondents are more likely to express support for female candidates and see them as more capable than their male counterparts, even in stereotypically male domains. We argue the increasing demand for political outsiders explains these results. In highlighting the importance of such changes, our study expands the application of gender congruity theory in the MENA and beyond by offering evidence that both changes in gender stereotypes (i.e., gender roles) and in what citizens desire in leaders (i.e., leader roles) reduce anti-female bias at the polls.

Think star, think men? Implicit star performer theories

SummaryThe star performer gender gap highlights women's challenges in being recognized as star performers. We investigated whether people hold shared beliefs about characteristics star performers possess (i.e., implicit star performer theories, ISPTs) and whether perceptions of stars are (a) gendered and (b) context‐specific. Guided by categorization theory, we argue that individuals have shared perceptions of what constitutes a star performer. Employing an inductive approach, we uncovered the existence of ISPTs that are distinct and differ from previously identified implicit theories, such as those about leadership. Specifically, stars were believed to have six characteristics: Driven, Relational, Extraordinary, Fascinating, Tenacious, and Brilliant. We then applied role congruity theory to argue that perceptions of star performers would be gendered and context‐dependent. Using an experimental approach, we ascertained that people associated star performers with more masculine than feminine attributes, what we labeled the think star, think men phenomenon. Moreover, this association was context‐dependent, such that the association of star performers with masculine attributes was stronger in men‐dominated occupations. Our third study used a non‐reactive approach (i.e., “Princeton trilogy”), and results showed that star performers are seen as possessing more masculine attributes than very good employees. Overall, our three studies using inductive, experimental, and indirect methods based on eight samples of 2322 participants consistently supported the existence of ISPTs and the think star, think men phenomenon, improving our understanding of the star performer gender gap.

Institutional and sport management educators' implementation of reading list diversity: A congruence analysis

This study utilised content analysis and semi-structured interviews with librarians to examine reading list diversity guidance within English higher education. Additional interviews with sport management educators evaluated their perceptions towards, and implementation of, diverse reading lists. Underpinned by congruence theory, the results evidenced incongruence between educators and librarians. Highlighting dyadic goal importance incongruence, educators disagreed that diverse reading lists can increase student attainment and engagement. Deep levels of dissimilarity regarding the pedagogical value of diverse reading lists also existed. However, educators perceived non-implementation of reading list diversity to be congruent with the diversity values expressed by their institution and department.

Gender and leadership evaluations: what happens if we actually measure expectations–behavior incongruence?

PurposeRole congruity theory and gender stereotypes research suggests men are expected to engage in agentic behavior and women in communal behavior as leaders, and that role violation results in backlash. However, extant gender and leadership research does not directly measure expectations–behavior incongruence. Further, researchers have only considered one condition of role incongruence – display of counter-role behavior – and have not considered the outcomes of failing to exhibit role-congruent behavior. Additionally, few studies have examined outcomes for male leaders who violate gender role prescriptions. The present study aims to address these shortcomings by conducting a novel empirical test of role congruity theory.Design/Methodology/approachThis experimental study used polynomial regression to assess how followers evaluated leaders under conditions of incongruence between follower expectations for men and women leaders’ behavior and leaders’ actual behavior (i.e. exceeded and unmet expectations). Respondents read a fictional scenario describing a new male or female supervisor, rated their expectations for the leader’s agentic and communal behavior, read manipulated vignettes describing the leader’s subsequent behavior, rated their perceptions of these behaviors, and evaluated the leader.FindingsFollowers expected higher levels of communal behavior from the female than the male supervisor, but no differences were found in expectations for agentic behavior. Regardless of whether expectations were exceeded or unmet, supervisor gender did not moderate the effects of agentic or communal behavior expectations–perceptions incongruence on leader evaluations in polynomial regression analyses (i.e. male and female supervisors were not evaluated differently when displaying counter-role behavior or failing to display role-congruent behavior).Originality/valueIn addition to providing a novel, direct test of role congruity theory, the study highlighted a double standard in gender role-congruent behavior expectations of men and women leaders. Results failed to support role congruity theory, which has implications for the future of theory in this domain.

Does gender matter in ethical leadership perceptions? Cross-national evidence

Last decade’s ethical leadership failures in business across the globe had severe ramifications, including bankruptcy for corporations that had previously been viewed as exemplary. Hence, ethical leadership has gained increased attention from both practitioners and researchers. In particular, the increased focus has been placed on ethical leadership perceptions in management settings. This paper presents empirical findings from a three-country experiment (N = 538) on the perceptions of ethical and unethical leadership, and how they interact with gender. Building on role congruity theory, we posit that female leaders encounter more severe criticism for unethical leadership compared to male leaders, but they also garner greater positive reactions for ethical leadership. We also hypothesize the existence of national differences in ethical leadership perceptions. Our results indicate that the rater’s perceptions are influenced by the gender of the leader they are rating and by ethical leadership. The rater’s gender, however, does not affect the evaluation of male and female leaders in the cultures examined. We have also found national differences among perceptions of ethical leadership, in line with the Corruption Perception Index. We further explore the consequences of these results for theoretical and practical applications in this paper and propose directions for future research.

Sorry to ask but … how is apology effectiveness dependent on apology content and gender?

While it is well understood that the content included in an apology matters, what constitutes an effective apology may differ depending on the gender of the person delivering it. In this article, we test competing theoretical perspectives (i.e., role congruity theory and expectancy violation theory [EVT]) about the relative effectiveness of apologies that include language that conforms (or not) with the gender stereotypes ascribed to the apologizer. Results of four studies supported an EVT perspective and showed that apologies were perceived to be relatively more effective when they contradicted gender stereotypes (i.e., communal [agentic] apologies by men [women]). Specifically, Study 1 provided an initial test of the competing hypotheses using celebrity apologies on Twitter. Then, results of three experiments (Studies 2, 3a, and 3b) built upon these initial findings and tested the psychological mechanisms proposed by EVT to explain why counterstereotypical apologies are beneficial (i.e., attributions of interpersonal sensitivity [assertiveness] and enhanced perceptions of benevolence [competence] for men [women]). Our contributions to theory and practice are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Gender Bias at Workplace: A Study of the Unspoken Bias Towards Female Leaders Competencies in A Male Dominated Work Environment

The aim of the study was to explore the existence of stereotypical gender bias in relation to gender preference and the perceived leadership behaviors and competencies that female leaders would need in order to be successful in a male dominated industry using the oil and gas industry as a case study. To achieve this objective, a research questions was asked, “Does a negative perception of female leaders’ competences and stereo typical bias still persist in the male dominated environment like the oil and gas industry”.To appropriately answer this question and meet the objectives of the study, a quantitative positivism research design was adopted as the methodology. Survey questionnaire with 88 scaled questions and 1 open-ended questions was used as data collection method. 134 respondents comprising of 54 females and 80 males participated in the study. The data was analyzed using the IBM SPSS software. The role congruity theory of prejudice towards female leaders, the ‘Think manager – Think Male’ notion, the double bind concept and the competency framework were used as a theoretical concept to drive the study.Key findings from the study includes the role of factors like organizational, culture, and gender bias as an unspoken barrier for female leaders to succeed in the oil and gas industry. Other findings include a unified bias in which both male and female favorably rated a female leader they have worked with satisfactorily; the female leaders in the oil and gas industry are not disliked for being professional or assertive rather they earn the same respect as with the males from their subordinates. Evidence suggests that the leadership styles that was found to be mostly associated with female leaders in the oil and gas industry is the participative and relation-oriented style of leadership and this in human resources management is the recommended best practice and more effective approach.

Women who cry to manipulate others face more backlash than men

AbstractTwo studies and one pilot study (Ntotal = 531) explore how observers react to men and women who cry in either good faith or in bad faith (i.e., with intention to manipulate). Using role congruity theory as a framework, we theorize that crying perceived as manipulative is less congruent with female stereotypes compared to male stereotypes. Accordingly, we find that women who cry in bad faith evoke less empathy and more anger from observers, who in turn judged them more harshly and are less willing to support them on a series of organizational outcomes. The same pattern did not emerge for men, for whom crying in good or bad faith did not seem to matter. This is in line with the idea that crying is overall less acceptable for men. In sum, we suggest that crying can have negative repercussions at work. This calls for greater attention to crafting interventions that can reduce discrimination and biases, ultimately fostering more positive workplace climates.