Congruency Sequence Effect Research Articles

Effect of achievement motivation on cognitive control adaptations

ABSTRACTPrevious research addressing motivational effects on cognitive control adaptations primarily manipulated external rewards. In the present study, we examined whether achievement motivation, reflecting intrinsic motivation, modulates cognitive control adaptations. In each of two experiments, students were divided into a high achievement motivation group (HAM; Experiment 1: N = 36; Experiment 2: N = 39) and a low achievement motivation group (LAM; Experiment 1: N = 30; Experiment 2: N = 39) on the basis of the Achievement Motivation Scale. Cognitive control adaptations were assessed by sequential congruency effects (SCEs) in Flanker tasks. Using a standard Flanker task in Experiment 1 and examining response times, the HAM but not LAM participants showed evidence of cognitive control adaptations. Because SCEs in a standard Flanker task may reflect lower-level, bottom-up processes rather than cognitive control adaptations, we used an adapted version of the Flanker task in Experiment 2 that controlled for the potential influence of such processes. Experiment 2 again revealed evidence of SCEs in the HAM but not LAM participants. These results suggest that cognitive control adaptions may be modulated by achievement motivation. Such potential modulation could be taken into account when evaluating results of previous and future fundamental and applied studies on cognitive control adaptations.

Is adaptive control in language production mediated by learning?

Recent work using the Picture Word Interference (PWI) paradigm has revealed that language production, similar to non-verbal tasks, shows a robust Congruency Sequence Effect (CSE), defined as a decreased congruency effect following incongruent trials. Although CSE is considered an index of adaptive control, its mechanism is debated. In two experiments, we tested the predictions of a learning model of adaptive control in production, using a task-switching paradigm fully balanced to evaluate CSE on a PWI trial as a function of the congruency of a 2-back PWI trial (within-task CSE), as well as a 1-back trial belonging to a different task (cross-task CSE). The second task was a visuospatial task with congruent and incongruent trials in Experiment 1, and a self-paced reading task with ambiguous and unambiguous sentences in Experiment 2 that imposed a gap between the two PWI trials twice as long of that in Experiment 1. A learning model posits that CSE is the result of changes to the connection weights between task-specific representations and a control center, which leads to two predictions in our paradigm: (a) a robust within-task CSE unaffected by the intervening trial and the gap duration, and (b) an absent or reversed cross-task CSE. These predictions were contrasted with two versions of an activation model of CSE. In accord with the predictions of the learning model, we found robust within-task CSE in PWI in both Experiments with a comparable effect size. Similarly, evidence of within-task CSE was also found in the visuospatial and sentence reading tasks. On the other hand, examination of cross-task CSE from PWI to the other tasks and vice versa revealed either absent or reversed CSE. Collectively, these results support a learning model of adaptive control in language production.

Perceptual load is not always a crucial determinant of early versus late selection

The perceptual load hypothesis posits that early and late selection occurs under conditions of high and low perceptual load, respectively. Recent work, however, suggests that the absence of a congruency effect in high-load trials – the behavioral signature of early selection in studies of perceptual load – may not provide an exhaustive index of failing to identify task-irrelevant distractors. Prior research also suggests that the congruency sequence effect (CSE) – a modulation of the congruency effect after incongruent relative to congruent trials – provides complementary information about whether participants identify distractors. We therefore conducted a novel test of the perceptual load hypothesis that employed both the congruency effect and the CSE as measures of distractor identification. Experiment 1 revealed that distractors were identified not only in low-load trials but also in high-load trials wherein there was no overall congruency effect. Experiment 2 further revealed which task parameters allowed us to observe such “hidden" distractor identification. These findings suggest that perceptual load is not always a crucial determinant of early versus late selection.

The impact of global and local context information on the processing of deceptive actions in game sports

In basketball, the defender’s reaction to a pass is slower and more error prone if the attacking player gazes into the opposite direction. This so-called head-fake effect might be modulated by context information, that is, the frequency and the sequence of head fakes occurring. Accordingly, the present study investigates the head-fake effect for different frequency proportions (20% vs. 50% vs. 80%). The results show that the head-fake effect decreases when the head fake occurs more often. Furthermore, a potential influence of previous fake experience (i.e., congruency-sequence effect) on the size of the head-fake effect was investigated. Importantly, previous fake experience did not cause the frequency-based modulation of the general size of the head-fake effect. These findings bare important implications for sports practice, especially when it comes to instructing players about the tactical use of deceptive actions.

Introspection of subjective feelings is sensitive and specific.

Conversely to behaviorist ideas, recent studies suggest that introspection can be accurate and reliable. However, an unresolved question is whether people are able to report specific aspects of their phenomenal experience, or whether they report more general nonspecific experiences. To address this question, we investigated the sensitivity and validity of our introspection for different types of conflict. Taking advantage of the congruency sequence effect, we dissociated response conflict while keeping visual conflict unchanged in a Stroop and in a priming task. Participants were subsequently asked to report on either their experience of urge to err or on their feeling of visual conflict. Depending on the focus of the introspection, subjective reports specifically followed either the response conflict or the visual conflict. These results demonstrate that our introspective reports can be sensitive and that we are able to dissociate specific aspects of our phenomenal experiences in a valid manner. (PsycINFO Database Record

Stuck at the starting line: How the starting procedure influences mouse-tracking data.

Mouse-tracking is an increasingly popular method to trace cognitive processes. As is common for a novel method, the exact methodological procedures employed in an individual study are still relatively idiosyncratic and the effects of different methodological setups on mouse-tracking measures have not been explored so far. Here, we study the impact of one commonly occurring methodological variation, namely whether participants have to initiate their mouse movements to trigger stimulus presentation (dynamic starting condition) or whether the stimulus is presented automatically after a fixed delay and participants can freely decide when to initiate their movements (static starting condition). We compared data from a previous study in which participants performed a mouse-tracking version of a Simon task with a dynamic starting condition to data from a new study that employed a static starting condition in an otherwise identical setup. Results showed reliable Simon effects and Congruency Sequence effects on response time (RT) and discrete trial-level mouse-tracking measures (i.e., average deviation) in both starting conditions. In contrast, within-trial continuous measures (i.e., extracted temporal segments) were weaker and occurred in a more temporally compressed way in the static compared to the dynamic starting condition. This was in line with generally less consistent movements within and across participants in the static compared to the dynamic condition. Our results suggest that studies that use within-trial continuous measures to assess dynamic aspects of mouse movements should apply dynamic starting procedures to enhance the leakage of cognitive processing into the mouse movements.

Science does not disengage

In a recent commentary, Goldsmith and Morton (in press) argue that the results of a study demonstrating smaller sequential congruency effects (SCEs) for bilinguals than for monolinguals (Grundy, Chung-Fat-Yim, Friesen, Mak, & Bialystok, 2017) is incorrect in its interpretation of SCEs. Moreover, their overall framework is that there is no evidence for any cognitive differences between monolingual and bilingual young adults. Here, we provide evidence in support of our original interpretation and challenge their basis for arguing that there are no language group differences on these cognitive measures.

Conflict adaptation in patients diagnosed with schizophrenia

Cognitive control impairments may contribute strongly to the overall cognitive deficits observed in patients diagnosed with schizophrenia. In the current study we explore a specific cognitive control function referred to as conflict adaptation. Previous studies on conflict adaptation in schizophrenia showed equivocal results, and, moreover, were plagued by confounded research designs. Here we assessed for the first time conflict adaptation in schizophrenia with a design that avoided the major confounds of feature integration and stimulus-response contingency learning. Sixteen patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and sixteen healthy, matched controls performed a vocal Stroop task to determine the congruency sequence effect – a marker of conflict adaptation. A reliable congruency sequence effect was observed for both healthy controls and patients diagnosed with schizophrenia. These findings indicate that schizophrenia is not necessarily accompanied by impaired conflict adaptation. As schizophrenia has been related to abnormal functioning in core conflict adaptation areas such as anterior cingulate and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, further research is required to better understand the precise impact of such abnormal brain functioning at the behavioral level.

Properties of context-driven control revealed through the analysis of sequential congruency effects

The context specific proportion congruent (CSPC) effect refers to the reduction in the size of the congruency effect at locations with a high proportion of incongruent trials compared to locations with a high proportion of congruent trials. The CSPC effect is commonly taken as evidence for context-driven modulation of cognitive control. Current models of context-driven control suggest that variations in the efficiency of control across locations are due to variations in the occurrence of conflict across locations (context). Moreover, these models predict that control settings are updated on a trial-to-trial basis. In Experiment 1, we investigated this prediction. If variations in conflict drive variations in the efficiency of control, and these location-based control settings are updated on each trial, then the occurrence of conflict at one location should lead to more efficient processing when the location repeats, but not when the location switches. Consistent with this prediction, we observed a sequential congruency effect when the location repeats, but not when the location switches. In Experiment 2, we looked for evidence of sequential congruency effects within and between locations in a manipulation in which an equal proportion of congruent and incongruent trials appear at each location. In contrast to the results of Experiment 1, we observed sequential congruency effects both when location repeated and when location switched. Thus, location appears to be a salient dimension on which to implement control settings when it is used in conjunction with variations in the proportion of congruent and incongruent trials.

Conflict adaptation in positive and negative mood: Applying a success-failure manipulation

Conflict adaptation is a cognitive mechanism denoting increased cognitive control upon detection of conflict. This mechanism can be measured by the congruency sequence effect, indicating the reduction of congruency effects after incongruent trials (where response conflict occurs) relative to congruent trials (without response conflict). Several studies have reported increased conflict adaptation under negative, as compared to positive, mood. In these studies, sustained mood states were induced by film clips or music combined with imagination techniques; these kinds of mood manipulations are highly obvious, possibly distorting the actual mood states experienced by the participants. Here, we report two experiments where mood states were induced in a less obvious way, and with higher ecological validity. Participants received success or failure feedback on their performance in a bogus intelligence test, and this mood manipulation proved highly effective. We largely replicated previous findings of larger conflict adaptation under negative mood than under positive mood, both with a Flanker interference paradigm (Experiment 1) and a Stroop-like interference paradigm (Experiment 2). Results are discussed with respect to current theories on affective influences on cognitive control.

Sequential congruency effects reveal differences in disengagement of attention for monolingual and bilingual young adults

Three studies examined the hypothesis that bilinguals can more rapidly disengage attention from irrelevant information than monolinguals by investigating the impact of previous trial congruency on performance in a simple flanker task. In Study 1, monolingual and bilingual young adults completed two versions of a flanker task. There were no differences between language groups on mean reaction time using standard analyses for congruent or incongruent trials or the size of the flanker effect. Sequential congruency effects (SCEs) however, which account for previous trial congruency, were smaller for bilinguals than for monolinguals. This finding was strongest at the shortest response-to-stimulus interval (RSI). Study 2 replicated this effect using a slightly different flanker task and a shorter RSI than study 1. Study 3 showed that at long RSIs, where behavioral SCE differences between groups disappear because of sufficient time to recover from the previous trial, event-related potentials demonstrated a continued influence of previous trial congruency for monolinguals but not bilinguals at both the N2 and the P3, replicating the reaction time effects in Studies 1 and 2. Together, these studies demonstrate that bilinguals experience less influence from previous trial congruency and have greater ability to disengage attention from the previous trial in order to focus attention on the current trial than is found for monolinguals.

The association between aerobic fitness and congruency sequence effects in preadolescent children

Aerobic fitness has previously been related to cognitive control in preadolescents; however, these investigations have generally relied on global measures of performance. Thus, we have little understanding of how aerobic fitness may relate to trial-by-trial modulations in cognitive control. This study utilized congruency sequence effects (CSEs), which characterize how behavior on the current trial is influenced by the previous trial, to investigate the relation of aerobic fitness on varying levels of cognitive control. One hundred eighty-seven children completed tests of aerobic fitness and a flanker task. Regressions were performed to determine relationships between CSE sequences and aerobic fitness while controlling for other potential confounding factors (e.g., age, sex, IQ). Lower-fit children were less able to modulate cognitive control during sequences requiring relatively less cognitive control. Additionally, lower-fit children were less able to adjust for variable levels of cognitive control during relatively more difficult sequences. Lastly, lower-fit children had longer reaction times (RTs) for all sequences in the condition requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. These findings corroborate the importance of aerobic fitness for cognitive control in school-aged children, and extend the literature by demonstrating a relationship between fitness and trial-by-trial modulations in control demands.

Dynamic adjustments of attentional control in healthy aging.

In standard attentional control tasks, interference effects are reduced following incongruent trials compared to congruent trials, a phenomenon known as the congruency sequence effect (CSE). Typical explanations of this effect suggest the CSE is due to changes in levels of control across adjacent trials. This interpretation has been questioned by the finding that older adults, individuals with impaired attentional control systems, have been shown to produce larger CSEs in the Stroop task compared with younger adult controls. In 2 experiments, we investigate the generality of this finding by examining how the CSE changes in healthy aging in 3 standard attentional control tasks-Stroop, Simon, and flanker-while controlling for additional confounds that have plagued some of the past literature. In both experiments, older adult participants exhibited a larger CSE in the Stroop task, replicating recent research, but smaller CSEs in both the Simon and flanker paradigms. These results are interpreted as reflecting a pathway priming mechanism in the Stroop task but a control adjustment process in Simon and flanker. Hence, there appears to be different mechanisms underlying the CSE which are engaged based on the type of attentional selection that is required by the task. More generally, these results question the use of the CSE in the Stroop task as a measure of dynamic adjustments in attentional control and highlight the importance of consideration of task-specific control systems underlying the CSE. (PsycINFO Database Record

An attentional mechanism for minimizing cross-modal distraction

Prior findings suggest that coping with distraction relies on cognitive control processes that increase attention to task-relevant processing and/or decrease attention to task-irrelevant processing. In line with this view, the size of the congruency effect in unimodal Stroop-like tasks, a popular measure of distraction, is typically reduced after more distracting incongruent trials relative to after less distracting congruent trials. It remains unclear, however, whether, and under what conditions, the control processes underlying this congruency sequence effect (CSE) minimize cross-modal distraction. The contingent attentional capture hypothesis predicts a cross-modal CSE when a distracter possesses a target-defining feature. In contrast, the perceptual conflict hypothesis predicts a cross-modal CSE when there is perceptual conflict between a distracter and a target. To distinguish between these hypotheses, we conducted two experiments wherein an auditory distracter word preceded a visual target that appeared in one of two formats (i.e., word or arrow). We observed robust, cross-modal CSEs. Moreover, the pattern of CSEs that we observed was more consistent with the contingent attentional capture hypothesis than with the perceptual conflict hypothesis. These findings reveal a novel attentional mechanism for minimizing cross-modal distraction.

Identifying stimuli that cue multiple responses triggers the congruency sequence effect independent of response conflict.

According to most accounts of executive control, resisting distraction requires enhancing task-relevant processing, reducing task-irrelevant processing, or both. Consistent with this view, the congruency effect in Stroop-like tasks-a putative measure of distraction-is often smaller after highly distracting incongruent trials than after less distracting congruent trials. Competing accounts of executive control, however, differ on which aspect of an incongruent trial triggers this congruency sequence effect (CSE). The activation-suppression account posits the activation of an incorrect response. In contrast, the response cueing account posits identifying stimuli that cue multiple responses. To distinguish between these accounts, we conducted 2 experiments involving a modified prime-probe task wherein participants respond to the distracter in occasional catch trials. We found that the CSE is triggered by identifying stimuli that cue multiple responses, rather than by the activation of an incorrect response. Further, we observed this effect while ruling out an alternative "response conflict" trigger. These findings are more consistent with the response cueing account than with the activation-suppression account. (PsycINFO Database Record

Beyond trial-by-trial adaptation: A quantification of the time scale of cognitive control.

The idea that adaptation to stimulus or response conflict can operate over different time scales takes a prominent position in various theories and models of cognitive control. The mechanisms underlying temporal variations in control are nevertheless poorly understood, which is partly due to a lack of appropriate empirical measures. Inspired by reinforcement learning models, we developed a method to quantify the time scale of control behaviorally, by computing trial-by-trial effects that go beyond the preceding trial. Briefly, we extended the congruency sequence effect from 1 trial to multiple trials into the past and quantified the influence of previous trials on current-trial performance as a function of trial distance. The rate at which this influence changes across trials was taken as a measure of the time scale of control. We applied the method to a flanker task with different conflict frequencies and volatility. Results showed that the time scale of control was smaller in rare-conflict and volatile contexts, compared to frequent-conflict and neutral contexts. This is in agreement with theories differentiating transient from sustained control. The method offers new opportunities to reveal temporal differences in control modes and can easily be applied to various empirical paradigms. (PsycINFO Database Record

The test of both worlds: identifying feature binding and control processes in congruency sequence tasks by means of action dynamics.

Cognitive control processes enable us to act flexibly in a world posing ever-changing demands on our cognitive system. To study cognitive control, conflict tasks and especially congruency sequence effects have been regarded as a fruitful tool. However, for the last decade a dispute has arisen whether or not congruency sequence effects are indeed a valid measure of cognitive control processes. This debate has led to the development of increasingly complex paradigms involving numerous, intricately designed experimental conditions which are aimed at excluding low-level, associative learning mechanisms like feature binding as an alternative explanation for the emergence of congruency sequence effects. Here, we try to go beyond this all-or-nothing thinking by investigating the assumption that both cognitive control processes as well as feature binding mechanisms occur within trials of the same task. Based on a theoretical dual-route-model of behavior under conflict, we show that both classes of cognitive mechanisms should affect behavior at different points of the decision process. By comparing these predictions to continuous mouse movements from an adapted Simon task, we find evidence that control processes and feature binding mechanisms do indeed coexist within the task but that they follow distinct timing patterns. We argue that this dynamic approach to cognitive processing opens up new ways to investigate the diversity of co-existing processes that contribute to the selection of behavior.

Separate Pathways for the Processing of Affordance of Neutral and Dangerous Object

Previous studies have shown that observation of object automatically elicits the activation of a reach-to-grasp response specifically directed to interact with the object, which is termed affordance. Recent findings provide evidences that even dangerous objects can evoke aversive affordances. However, these studies only focused on avoidance effect emerged with dangerous objects. It remains unclear whether the neutral object and dangerous object share a common mechanism for the processing of affordance information. The affordance effect is considered to be a type of conflict between the afforded response and the response required by the task. In a symbol judgment task, we simultaneously presented the neutral object and dangerous object to investigate whether the congruency sequence effects (congruency effects following incongruent trials are smaller than those following congruent trials) occurred across the two types of affordance conflict, which is typically assumed that such flexible adjustments can only be observed between the same conflict types. It was found that congruency sequence effects were only generated between the same types of affordance conflict (e.g., neutral object or dangerous object), but not between two different affordance conflict types (e.g., neutral object and dangerous object). These results indicate there may be two different pathways for the processing of affordance of the neutral and dangerous object.

The Association Between Aerobic Fitness and Congruency Sequence Effects in Preadolescent Children

PURPOSE: Aerobic fitness has previously been observed to relate to inhibitory control in preadolescent children; however, these investigations have generally relied on global measures of performance. Thus, we have little understanding of how aerobic fitness may relate to trial-by-trial modulations in inhibition. The current study utilized congruency sequence effects (CSE), which characterize how the current trial was influenced by the trial that preceded it, to investigate the relation of aerobic fitness on varying levels of inhibitory control demand during preadolescence. METHODS: One hundred eighty-seven children completed tests of aerobic fitness and a modified flanker task to assess inhibitory control. CSEs were used to identify sequences of trials engendering variable cognitive demands. Regressions were performed to determine relationships between CSE trial types and aerobic fitness level while controlling for other potential confounding factors (e.g., age, sex, IQ). RESULTS: Higher-fit children demonstrated greater accuracy in their performance on trials with lower inhibitory demands (i.e., compatible cC and incompatible iC; partial correlation’s ≥ .210), and an additional benefit from the previous trial (i.e., n-1) on the current trial (i.e., n) when increased amounts of inhibitory control were required (i.e., iI sequences; partial correlation = .153). Additionally, higher-fit children were better able to adapt to the sequence requiring the greatest inhibitory control demand (i.e., incompatible cI; partial correlation = .158), t’s ≥ 2.10, p’s ≤ .04, β’s ≥ .161. Lastly, higher-fit children had shorter reaction times (RTs) for all incompatible response sequences (partial correlation’s ≥ -.182), t’s ≥ -2.50, p’s ≤ .01, β’s ≥ -.186. CONCLUSIONS: These findings corroborate the importance of aerobic fitness for inhibitory control, and extend the literature demonstrating a relationship between fitness and trial-by-trial modulations in cognition. These results add to the growing body of literature indicating the importance of aerobic fitness for cognitive control in school age children.

Cognitive flexibility in patients with Parkinson’s disease

Two studies comparing patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) and controls on flanker tasks are discussed. Study 1 investigated effects of PD on instantaneous (within-trial flanker congruency) and sequence-dependent (between-trial congruency sequence) distractor interference. For situations requiring instantaneous cognitive control, PD patients and controls showed similar congruency effects on reaction time (RT) and on event-related brain potentials (ERPs). As expected, controls showed reliable congruency sequence effects on RTs and ERPs. However, PD patients were completely unaffected by the congruence sequence across consecutive trials, as revealed by RTs and ERPs. Study 2 examined persistent (input selection) versus transient (input shifting) mechanisms of attention control in PD using a novel combination of a flanker task with an attentional set-shifting task. Controls showed robust shifting costs (prolonged RTs), but PD patients did not show evidence for comparable shifting costs. PD patients made more errors than controls when required to shift between attentional sets, but also when they had to initially maintain an attentional set. At the neural level it was found that contrary to controls, PD patients did not display any ERP augmentation on shift trials. Our results reveal that disturbed contextual modulation of cognitive control is a major cognitive dysfunction in PD patients.