Confocal Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy Research Articles

Insights into the effect of susceptor rotational speed in CVD reactor on the quality of 4H-SiC epitaxial layer on homogeneous substrates

In this work, 4H-SiC homoepitaxial layers were grown on 4°off-axis substrates at different susceptor rotation speeds by using a hot-wall horizontal CVD reactor. The effect of different susceptor rotation speed on the quality of 4H-SiC epitaxial layers in terms of thickness, thickness uniformity, crystallinity, surface morphology and morphological defects was investigated via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), high-resolution X-ray diffraction (XRD), atomic force microscopy (AFM), confocal differential interference contrast microscopy (CDIC), ultra-violet photo-luminescence spectroscopy (UV-PL), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and micro-Raman spectroscopy, respectively. A flow field simulation was performed to explain the impact of susceptor rotation speed on the film deposition. The FTIR results suggested that the susceptor rotation speed could be an important factor to adjust thickness uniformity and deposition rate. The XRD patterns showed that crystallinity was independent of the susceptor rotation speed. The surface morphology can be improved by changing the susceptor rotation speed. According to CDIC scans, the down-fall related defects were reduced through the increase in the susceptor rotation speed. The origin of down-fall related defects was interpreted by Raman spectroscopy and speculative models. To sum up, the susceptor rotation speed is a crucial factor in increasing growth rate and improving uniformity. Also, the faster susceptor rotation speed helps reduce the number of down-fall related defects in the hot-wall CVD reactor.

Identification of fine structures at the surface of epi-ready GaN wafer observed by confocal differential interference contrast microscopy

Confocal differential interference contrast microscopy detected dots and line contrasts on the surface of epi-ready (0001) GaN wafers. Large and small dots consisted of pits, ∼1.4 μm in width and ∼7 nm in depth, and ∼0.5 μm in width and ∼2.7 nm in depth, respectively; the pits mainly formed on the outcrops of dislocations, with Burgers vectors ≥ c and b = a, respectively, via inadequate chemical mechanical polishing. Lines consisted of scratches induced via polishing. Deep scratches accompanied dense basal plane dislocation loops.

The Surface of Ice under Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Conditions.

ConspectusThe ice premelt, often called the quasi-liquid layer (QLL), is key for the lubrication of ice, gas uptake by ice, and growth of aerosols. Despite its apparent importance, in-depth understanding of the ice premelt from the microscopic to the macroscopic scale has not been gained. By reviewing data obtained using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, sum-frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy, and laser confocal differential interference contrast microscopy (LCM-DIM), we provide a unified view of the experimentally observed variation in quasi-liquid (QL) states. In particular, we disentangle three distinct types of QL states of disordered layers, QL-droplet, and QL-film and discuss their nature.The topmost ice layer is energetically unstable, as the topmost interfacial H2O molecules lose a hydrogen bonding partner, generating a disordered layer at the ice–air interface. This disordered layer is homogeneously distributed over the ice surface. The nature of the disordered layer changes over a wide temperature range from −90 °C to the bulk melting point. Combined MD simulations and SFG measurements reveal that the topmost ice surface starts to be disordered around −90 °C through a process that the topmost water molecules with three hydrogen bonds convert to a doubly hydrogen-bonded species. When the temperature is further increased, the second layer starts to become disordered at around −16 °C. This disordering occurs not in a gradual manner, but in a bilayer-by-bilayer manner.When the temperature reaches −2 °C, more complicated structures, QL-droplet and QL-film, emerge on the top of the ice surface. These QL-droplets and QL-films are inhomogeneously distributed, in contrast to the disordered layer. We show that these QL-droplet and QL-film emerge only under supersaturated/undersaturated vapor pressure conditions, as partial and pseudopartial wetting states, respectively. Experiments with precisely controlled pressure show that, near the water vapor pressure at the vapor-ice equilibrium condition, no QL-droplet and QL-film can be observed, implying that the QL-droplet and QL-film emerge exclusively under nonequilibrium conditions, as opposed to the disordered layers formed under equilibrium conditions.These findings are connected with many phenomena related to the ice surface. For example, we explain how the disordering of the topmost ice surface governs the slipperiness of the ice surface, allowing for ice skating. Further focus is on the gas uptake mechanism on the ice surface. Finally, we note the unresolved questions and future challenges regarding the ice premelt.

In situ observation of biotite (001) surface dissolution at pH 1 and 9.5 by advanced optical microscopy.

Laser confocal differential interference contrast microscopy (LCM-DIM) allows for the study of the reactivity of surface minerals with slow dissolution rates (e.g., phyllosilicates). With this technique, it is possible to carry out in situ inspection of the reacting surface in a broad range of pH, ionic strength and temperature providing useful information to help unravel the dissolution mechanisms of phyllosilicates. In this work, LCM-DIM was used to study the mechanisms controlling the biotite (001) surface dissolution at pH 1 (11 and 25 °C) and pH 9.5 (50 °C). Step edges are the preferential sites of dissolution and lead to step retreat, regardless of the solution pH. At pH 1, layer swelling and peeling takes place, whereas at pH 9.5 fibrous structures (streaks) form at the step edges. Confocal Raman spectroscopy characterization of the reacted surface could not confirm if the formation of a secondary phase was responsible for the presence of these structures.

In Situ Observation of Step Dynamics on Gypsum Crystals

In this work we studied the kinetics of gypsum crystals growing from aqueous solutions as a function of temperature and supersaturation. Laser confocal differential interference contrast microscopy (LCM-DIM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) were used to observe in situ the step advancement and the evolution of the surface morphology of the {010} face. We found that, for the experimental conditions used in this study, 2D nucleation is the main step generation mechanism, even at low supersaturations, and only a few spiral hillocks were observed. Due to the elongated morphology of2D islands along the c-axis and the frequent nucleation of multilayer 2D islands, {010} faces growing from a supersatured solution developed a hill and valley topography. This type of surface topography is observed at all temperatures. The step kinetic coefficient, β s1 , was determined in the temperature range 20—80 °C, and a steep increment in the kinetic coefficient is found with increasing temperature. From these data, the activation barrier for incorporation of building units in the {010} face was determined to be 70.7 ± 5.0 kJ/mol. Analysis of the kinetic data shows that at low temperatures (≤40°C) growth of the {010} face is dominated by a mixed regime and at higher temperatures (>40 °C) growth is controlled solely by diffusion.

Precise protein solubility determination by Laser confocal differential interference contrast microscopy

We describe a method for precisely measuring the solubility of proteins in aqueous solution using laser confocal differential interference contrast microscopy. The method is based on the in situ observation of single steps on a protein crystal surface which allows a fast and precise determination of solubility as a function of temperature. To demonstrate the effectiveness of this novel approach the solubility dependence on temperature of glucose isomerase and hen egg white lysozyme was determined with a precision of ±0.5 °C or smaller. It was found that a small amount of impurities did not significantly change the obtained solubility data. Numerical values for enthalpies and entropies of crystallization were calculated and they compare well to previously reported values but the experimental errors were significantly reduced.