End Of Conflict Research Articles

The conjugal order and long-term reintegration in Northern Uganda. How ideas of sexuality and patrilineality shape reintegration processes of men, women and children born in captivity

ABSTRACT Research on the reintegration of ex-combatants has mostly focused on a short period after the end of conflict. Building on this observation, I analyse the long-term reintegration processes of formerly abducted by the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) in Northern Uganda from a feminist perspective. Specifically, I explore how long-term reintegration differs for returning men, women and children born in captivity (CBC). To understand these long-term processes, it is crucial to analyse the wider societal order into which returnees reintegrate. I argue that in Northern Uganda a conjugal order centred around ideas of sexuality/marriage and patrilineality shapes the different reintegration experiences of returning women, men and CBC. I find that gender affects both short-term and long-term reintegration, with returning women and their children encountering significantly more difficulties than returning men. Interestingly, male CBC transitioning into adulthood are confronted with more problems related to the conjugal order than female CBC. Overall, my findings suggest that reintegration is an open, dynamic, and intergenerational process that cannot be confined to a fixed time frame.

The long-lasting effect of armed conflicts deaths on the living: Quantifying family bereavement.

Armed conflicts escalate combatant and civilian mortality and produce considerable levels of family bereavement. Yet, we know little about the prevalence of bereavement in conflict-affected populations. The violent loss of kin affects individuals across several dimensions, including trauma, mental health, socioeconomic status, and caregiving, especially during childhood and old age. Here, we propose a method to quantify population-level loss of parents and offspring in conflict-affected populations. Our analyses demonstrate that bereavement levels consistently surpass fatality rates in 16 conflict-affected settings. Using demographic projections, we show that these populations will continue to experience considerable levels of bereavement in the coming decades, independent of the future development of the respective conflicts. This quantification underscores bereavement as a profound yet understudied consequence of conflict with potentially far-reaching implications lingering long after the conflict's end.

Mírové smlouvy v mezinárodních vztazích. (K problematice kritérií a systematizace)

The subject of this study is the issue of peace treaties, which are among the most important diplomatic acts and documents in international relations. Peace treaties represent one of the most important types of international treaties. They are an integral part of the couple relationship of peace and war. Their basic specificity is the fact that, on the one hand, they confirm the end of the war conflict and, on the other hand, establish measures and rules for the subsequent relations between the participants in the conflict. In contrast to the prevailing approach, which deals with this issue from the point of view of international law, the author approached the issue on the basis of historical analysis and comparison. His goal was to establish criteria and, based on this, systematize the most important peace treaties concluded in the course of the history of international relations. The author came to determine a total of six intertwining main models of peace treaties: 1. victory of one side over the other, 2. parties exhausted each other and none won, 3. only one of the stages of the war was ended, 4. participation in the conflict ended with a peace treaty only some parties, 5. number of parties involved, 6. content aspect of the treaty. Following this, the author also paid attention to other related problems. Specifically, these are the ratification and observance of peace treaties, accompanying and follow-up contractual arrangements, the extent and degree of punishment of the defeated party, and treaties intended to prevent conflict. The purpose of the study was to create a conceptual and systematically anchored framework for further research on this important part of international relations and diplomacy.

SOCIAL INNOVATIONS AND SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE CONTEXT OF POST-WAR RECOVERY OF UKRAINE: CONCEPTUALISATION AND LEGAL ASPECTS

Global experiences of post-war and post-conflict recovery and reconstruction show that preparations for the post-war period should begin even before the conflict ends. For Ukraine's post-war recovery, promoting social entrepreneurship and implementing social innovations is crucial. These efforts will foster practical cooperation between the state, businesses, and the public, addressing various challenges collectively, solving socio-economic problems, and implementing reforms. The purpose of this article is to study the essence and evolution of knowledge about constructs and concepts in the fields of social innovation and social entrepreneurship, to substantiate the opportunities for the dissemination of social innovations, and to create conditions for social entrepreneurship in addressing social needs in the context of Ukraine's post-war recovery. Given its fragmented conceptualisation and widespread use by scholars, policymakers, and practitioners, this study is driven by the need for a theoretical justification of social innovation and entrepreneurship. Methods: To achieve this goal and solve specific tasks, empirical and theoretical research methods were used: analysis, synthesis, and generalisation. These methods, applied at a dialectical level, provide a scientific basis for theoretical and methodological approaches to introducing social innovations in public life. With the help of multidisciplinary ontological analysis and the use of bibliometric indicators, such as citations, co-citations, bibliometric links and coincidences, the main research trends in the knowledge clusters of social innovation and social entrepreneurship were identified. This was accomplished through system mapping with the VOSviewer tool and the analysis and synthesis of publications on social innovation and social entrepreneurship for deep theoretical and practical understanding, as well as evaluation of current research at the interdisciplinary level. Results and Conclusions: Ukrainian legislation does not define the concepts of "social innovation" and "social entrepreneurship," which hinders the development and functioning of social entrepreneurship and the production of social innovations. The war and its aftermath have created new challenges that require new practical approaches and means of solving social problems. One of these approaches is to combine the measures of the current social policy in Ukraine, limited by the organisational and financial involvement of the state in solving social problems, with the possibilities of public participation and entrepreneurial activity. Introducing modern world practices of social innovation and social entrepreneurship, as well as regulatory regulation of social enterprises, will be an essential step towards developing the non-governmental sector of social development and social protection policy.

Reflecting on the Rise and Decline of the South African Defence Industry

The South African Defence Industry has undergone several significant changes during the past six decades, with its current state being deemed unfavourable for continued survivability. To develop a robust understanding of the industry, a review of the scientific literature (and government policies) has been undertaken to chart the trends in the industry through the decades. South African political ideologies in the sixties and seventies resulted in a need for self-sufficiency in defence. By the late eighties, increased military spending resulted in a powerful and capable defence industry, but the end of apartheid and regional conflicts saw an expected sharp drop in the defence budget. The Strategic Defence Package offered some respite in terms of exports, but this has declined in the recent past. The defence budget has remained at a steady low value for two decades, with no real possibility of an increase. To maintain relevance and ensure organisational resilience, the remnants of the South African Defence Industry should use the Defence Industry Strategy as a baseline to develop robust local relationships to drive innovation and foster economic growth, while also strengthening international market share by strengthening unique South African technologies.

Conflict Recovery in Socialist Utopia: A Critical Analysis of Vietnam's Postwar Reconstruction Policies Through a Visual Interpretation of 1976–1986 Propaganda Posters

The Vietnam War left a newly reunified Vietnam with innumerable challenges following the fall of Saigon in April 1975. Through an interpretive analytical approach using propaganda posters as the visual data source, this study examines how the Communist Party of Vietnam and the Vietnamese government disseminated economic, political, diplomatic, military, and social policies to the public in order to rally support for the ambitious goal of rebuilding the country as an industrialized socialist nation. In doing so, this study shows how a national reconstruction discourse could be modalized in textual, visual, and symbolic spaces to maximize its persuasiveness in conflict recovery efforts. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that while recovery is the utmost goal of governments following the end of conflicts, basing it on a specific ideology without careful examination of contextual factors can be deleterious and even calamitous. Propaganda posters can serve as a powerful communication tool for policy makers, but poorly aligned campaigns can be counterproductive.

Establishing a practical test for the end of non-international armed conflict

Abstract When do non-international armed conflicts (NIACs) end? Determining the existence of a NIAC requires a detailed, fact-intensive inquiry. Since the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia's seminal decision in the Tadić case, international courts and tribunals have evaluated the existence of NIACs under the Tadić test's two-pronged inquiry into intensity and organization. Although that decision also pronounced that international humanitarian law (IHL) continues to apply until a “peaceful settlement is achieved,” neither international tribunals nor scholars have articulated a comparably widely accepted and well-developed test for determining the end of NIACs. At the same time – and especially since 9/11 – States have increasingly relied on IHL to meet the threat posed by non-State actors, broadening the scope of conflict-related liabilities in armed conflict without conferring the privileges or immunities otherwise inherent in IHL. This one-sided approach twists the purpose of IHL and places members of organized armed groups into legal black holes without temporal limitations, as States resist the termination of “armed conflict” irrespective of the continuing intensity of violence or the level of organization of non-State actors. Ultimately, the current approach gives States broad discretion without appropriate safeguards, which undermines the proper application of human rights and humanitarian principles within conflict and prevents the establishment of a sustainable peace. This paper argues that the most appropriate test for ascertaining the end of a NIAC is one that combines objective consideration of the diminution of organized and intense hostilities below the Tadić threshold with the likelihood that hostilities will not again rise above that threshold. It thus draws from but does not fully endorse the preferred approach of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), which focuses on the lasting termination of hostilities,1 while abjuring a general temporal limitation. Although commendable for its effort to avoid the legal uncertainty that attends the revolving conflict classification problem, the ICRC's approach unfortunately tends to encode existing uncertainty surrounding the termination of NIACs and to indistinctly prolong the application of IHL to erstwhile conflict situations. In contrast, the authors suggest that a test for the end of NIAC based on a specific period (five months following the diminution of organized and intense hostilities below the Tadić threshold), subject to an evaluation of the risk that those hostilities may resume, better balances certainty of legal application with the promotion of a return to peace. The authors will employ the facts of diverse case studies, including the FARC in Colombia, the LTTE in Sri Lanka, numerous armed groups in Mali, and the United States with Al-Qaeda, to build a legal standard that courts can use to determine IHL's continuing applicability to an erstwhile armed conflict.

Changes in mental health stigma among healthcare professionals and community representatives in Northern Sri Lanka during an mhGAP intervention study.

Research indicates that exposure to conflict, natural disasters, and internal displacement can increase mental health conditions. Since the end of the civil conflict within Sri Lanka, the country has worked to increase access to mental health services to meet the needs of conflict-affected populations, however, gaps remain. To address this, integration of mental health services into primary care can reduce the strain on growing specialized care. As part of a larger study primary care practitioners (doctors), public health professionals (nurses, midwives), and community representatives (teachers, social workers) were trained to deliver mental health services in primary care across the heavily impacted Northern Province. The aim was to reduce mental health stigma among enrolled healthcare workers and community representatives by 50%. Stigma was measured across all participant groups at six time points: pre- and post- initial training at baseline, pre- and post- refresher training 3-months after initial training, and pre- and post- refresher training 6-months after initial training. Results indicate a small improvement in average stigma scores at the 6-month refresher point for primary care practitioners, and no meaningful difference in average scores across time points for public health professionals or community representatives. World Health Organization mhGAP training appears to reduce stigma among primary care practitioners and could be an effective strategy to counteract mental health stigma in low resource settings. Future research should investigate underlying mechanisms of stigma reduction to improve delivery of mental health services in primary care and community settings.

Transitional justice interventions in Sri Lanka: why do they keep failing?

ABSTRACT How can a country meaningfully commit to transitional justice interventions when ethnocracy and majoritarianism remain deeply entrenched in its political, legal and constitutional structures? Despite the creation of several commissions of inquiry and other mechanisms over the years to deal with the past, including those set up during the civil war, transitional justice and reconciliation have not been an integral part of Sri Lanka’s nation-building campaign and socio-cultural consciousness. Sri Lanka’s transitional justice interventions have historically been top-down, state-driven and elitist that lacked wider consultations with various groups and take their interests and demands into account. The oscillation between different political parties and their domestic and foreign policy orientations have had little impact. This article argues that the top-down and ‘one-size-fits-all’ transitional justice model does not work in certain societies, including Sri Lanka, and a shift to a unique and contexualised approach is imperative not only for longer-term sustainability but also to allow voices from the ground to be heard and included. This paper critiques the dominant transitional justice process and examines the challenges of achieving transitional justice in deeply divided societies where majoritarianism strengthens after the end of a violent conflict. Nonetheless, it acknowledges the risks of over-eulogising the bottom-up and local approach.

LABOUR MARKET IN UKRAINE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF A YEAR OF FULL-SCALE WAR

The main purpose of this research article is a comprehensive study of the transformational impact of a full-scale war on the labour market, with a special focus on the challenges posed by labour force dynamics in the context of the Ukrainian economy. Through rigorous analysis and empirical research, the paper aims to identify and highlight the multifaceted changes that occur in the labour market during conflict, shedding light on the complex relationship between war-induced factors and the composition of the labour force. By examining these dynamics, the paper aims to make a valuable contribution to policy and strategic decision-making aimed at mitigating the negative effects of war on the labour market, which will ultimately contribute to sustainable economic recovery and development after the conflict ends. Methodology. This research article uses secondary analysis of data from the State Employment Service, as well as the results of surveys conducted by sociological groups and consulting companies. The practical implementation of the conclusions outlined in this article involves the formulation of targeted recommendations aimed at improving the effectiveness of state policy on the labour market in Ukraine, in particular, with a focus on the restoration of human resources in the post-conflict period. Drawing on the findings of a comprehensive analysis of war-induced labour market changes, these practical recommendations aim to offer actionable strategies for policy makers and stakeholders. Emphasising the need for rapid and adaptive interventions, the authors call for evidence-based decision-making to address the identified challenges. The practical implementation of these recommendations aims to guide the development and implementation of policies that will not only mitigate the immediate impact of the war on the labour market, but also contribute to the long-term sustainability and stability of the Ukrainian labour force. Value/Originality. Current trends in the labour market are analysed. The main threats to the labour market of Ukraine and the impact on the supply and demand of labour under martial law are identified. The author proposes to regulate the professional and qualification imbalance in the labour market through the system of advanced training or retraining of employees seeking employment in a profession in demand in the economy; spreading new forms of employment and supporting self-employment; investing in the creation of new jobs with decent conditions and remuneration.

POST-WAR ECONOMIC RECOVERY IN UKRAINE: PROBLEMS, RISKS AND WAYS

Ukraine, as a country that suffered huge losses during the full-scale Russian military invasion, will have to go through a difficult period after the end of the military conflict with Russia. The hostilities have caused significant damage to the Ukrainian economy, destroying critical infrastructure, disrupting logistics, destroying production and significantly reducing its volume, devastating agricultural land, and critically reducing the country's overall economic potential. However, despite this, Ukraine has the potential to restore and develop its economy. The purpose of the article is to study and substantiate the current state of the economy, finances, its debt burden, social problems, and to determine the prospects for post-war recovery of Ukraine's economy in the course of its functioning in a full-scale war. One of the main directions of the country's development during the war should be economic diversification with a focus on active stimulation of the military-industrial complex and attraction of investments in the regions. To this end, a number of government programs should be launched to support small and medium-sized businesses, create new jobs, and improve infrastructure. We believe that in order to successfully restore the economy, comprehensive measures must be taken, including: reconstruction of damaged infrastructure: rebuilding roads, bridges, schools, hospitals and other facilities that have been affected by the war; support for businesses: providing financial support and stimulating the development of businesses affected by the conflict; social support: providing assistance and support for people who have lost their jobs or become homeless because of the war; attracting investment: creating new jobs and creating new opportunities for investment. It is also important to ensure coordination of efforts of all sectors of the government, business and civil society to successfully restore Ukraine's economy after the military conflict.The article uses the methods of analysis and synthesis, systematic approach, and comparative analysis.

A CRITICAL INCIDENT ANALYSIS OF PARENT-SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS' CONFLICTS IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Examining the disputes that arise between parents, teachers, and students is the goal of this study. The study, which was carried out at the primary school level, where parent-child interaction is high, employed the critical incident analysis method. The typical sampling method was used to select participants for the study, and school principals were required to have at least 5 years of managerial experience. As a part of this research, interviews were conducted with 10 elementary school principals working in the Tuzla district of Istanbul. A semi-structured form, prepared by the researchers in consultation with experts, was used as a data collection tool. As a result of the interviews, themes were identified relating to "reasons of conflict," "conflict resolution methods," "end of conflict," and "impact and change of conflict." Effective communication, active listening, valuing others, seeking support, and displaying a firm stance were identified as conflict resolution methods. The conflicts affected school principals emotionally and influenced them to behave more professionally. The study's conclusions include that school principals should receive training in communication skills, have their legal standing reinforced, and become more professional. Given the critical importance of managing conflicts in educational settings, recommendations for researchers are offered.

Global Diversity Character Habituation Profil Pelajar Pancasila in Islamic-Based Schools from the Perspective of Pierre Bourdieu and Clifford Geertz

This research is based on the phenomenon of conflict with a background of differences. Indonesia, as a multicultural country that has the ideology of Pancasila and Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, in fact still often experiences discrimination, domination, and other problems that end in conflict and violence. Indonesia's cultural wealth in the form of local wisdom is now starting to be eroded due to the influence of globalization. Society began to focus on Western cultures. This research aims to describe the process of habituating the character of global diversity in the younger generation, especially students through educational institutions. Based on the theory of Pierre Bourdieu and Clifford Geertz, the researcher tries to describe the implementation of strengthening the global diversity character of the Profil Pelajar Pancasila in Islamic-based schools in the city of Surakarta. This research is research with a descriptive qualitative approach. The results of this research explain that Profil Pelajar Pancasila is a competent lifelong learner, has character, and behaves according to Pancasila's values. In connection with Pierre Bourdieu's theory, educational institutions are referred to as arenas (fields). Furthermore, global diversity includes openness and tolerance towards foreign cultural diversity while still respecting culture. This concept is by Clifford Geertz's theory that culture is a symbolic system, so cultural processes must be read, translated, and interpreted. The success of characterizing global diversity is influenced by family socialization and teacher example, both of which, according to Pierre Bourdieu, are structural actors/agents and are influenced by social heterogeneity which becomes social capital.

Fish diversity of Colombian Andes-Amazon streams at the end of conflict is a reference for conservation before increased land use.

Reference conditions are difficult to find in the Anthropocene but essential for effective biodiversity conservation. Aquatic ecosystems in the Andes-Amazon transition zone of Colombia are now at high risk due to expanded human activities after peace agreements in 2016 ended armed conflict because lands formerly controlled by FARC and other armed groups are now prone to agricultural and urban expansion. Particularly, expanding human land use may reduce fish diversity across the altitudinal gradient, especially in the premontane streams (i.e., <500 m a.s.l.) because lands are more amenable to human use than at greater altitudes. We evaluated fish α-diversity (measured as species richness, total abundance, and effective species number) and β-diversity (spatial and temporal) in 12 sites over 8 years bracketing the end of armed conflict. All α-diversity and β-diversity analyses were evaluated relative to categorical altitude (< or >500 m) and continuous altitude. Strong differences in fish community structure among sites occurred as a function of altitude. Fish communities exhibit altitudinal biodiversity gradients that are consistent in space and time, and that need to be accounted for conservation and management considerations. Our results provide a reference to identify short- and long-term changes due to impending human land use at a critical moment for the conservation of tropical fish diversity. Similar studies in other areas of the upper Amazon Basin are needed to evaluate effects of subsequent human activities on diversity patterns and our study area to compare to reference conditions reported here.

Indonesia's support in the ongoing conflict between Israel and Palestine

Palestine is a country in the Middle East whose political status is still under debate. Some countries in the world, including ASEAN, have recognized the existence of the state of Palestine, but there are still several countries in the world, including the United States, that have not recognized the existence of the state of Palestine. This then also became one of the reasons for the prolonged conflict between Israel and Palestine. This conflict has been going on for hundreds of years, from the end of the 19th century to the current 21st century. October 2023 is the beginning of the Israeli and Palestinian conflict once again becoming a very serious topic of discussion in the international world towards the end of 2023. As a country that has had relations with the Middle East, including Palestine, since before independence, Indonesia has a role in the peaceful solution that is expected to occur in Israel and Palestine. This paper aims to look at the support of Indonesia in responding to the prolonged Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Why doesn't this conflict end? Does this conflict have the potential to end? This paper is used descriptive study method and analysis by the authors.

법적분쟁을 경험한 공립학교 초등교사의 어려움 탐색

This study aimed to explore the challenges facing elementary school teachers who experience legal disputes. For this purpose, in-depth interviews were conducted with eight teachers and two principals. During the legal proceedings, teachers encountered issues with untrustworthy offices of education and uncooperative schools. The professional crises were exacerbated by the phenomenon of judicialization of education, wherein educational issues were sought to be resolved through judicial means. The teachers also suffered from psychological and emotional distress, and these hardships persisted even after the end of the legal conflicts. Furthermore, the legal disputes hindered the teachers’ educational activities, and they faced additional conflicts. As alternatives to address these difficulties, institutional efforts at the school and educational authority levels are recommended. Specifically, school administrators, including principals, are urged to adopt proactive approaches, while educational authorities are called upon to enhance their systemic capacity to handle legal issues. Based on these results, this study suggests addressing the judicialization of education, systematizing institutional responses at the organizational level, and deploying experts in legal matters within the education system.

Управління бізнесом під час війни

The interaction between business and hostilities represents a complex dynamic, as both of these aspects have a huge impact on each other. When discussing this connection, one should consider not only the challenges, but also the opportunities it opens up for businesses in the face of instability and conflicts. The high level of discordance and geopolitical turbulence creates special conditions for strategic thinking and adaptability of business leaders. Hostilities cause economic instability, reduced production, destruction of infrastructure and loss of jobs, which leads to losses for local enterprises and causes great risks for investors who have to invest in countries with ongoing military conflicts, due to the instability of government structures and doubts about the economic recovery after the end of the certain conflict. The conditions of military conflict require a high level of attention from business organizations to ensure the safety and security of their employees, since this category of assets is one of the most important for the sustainability of the enterprise. Simultaneously, the protection of property assets is of great importance, as enterprises must minimize the possible risks of destruction or damage in the conditions of hostilities. In addition, effective risk management requires the enterprise to develop and implement strategies to adapt to the changing geopolitical environment, which allows it to maintain stability and efficiency of operation during adverse conditions. It is important to note that competent risk management is a crucial factor for maintaining business activity and the successful functioning of the enterprise even in the most complex scenarios of a conflict environment. War, as a complex phenomenon, creates not only challenges but also opportunities for business, especially in the context of certain industries and scenarios. For example, it stimulates the demand for products and services related to the defense industry, which contributes to the development of technology, weapons production, transport and communication systems. Post-conflict recovery markets open up new opportunities for companies in the fields of construction, reconstruction and infrastructure solutions. Thus, military conflicts, although they pose significant challenges to society and the economy, at the same time provide opportunities for the development of new technologies, markets and management strategies that require comprehensive analysis and response on the part of business and politics.

Critique of the Teleological presuppositions of Peace-Conflict-Development Narrative Discourse in Africa

Implicit in the dominant conceptualisations of discursive peace in relation to conflict and development is the intrinsic presupposition of peace as "the means" towards the cessation of conflict - "the end", whose by-product is necessarily development. Several works have interrogated and criticised this peace construct. These works, often usually recast peace as a social fact imbued with a teleological implication towards progressive ideals of development and end of conflict. This reductionist approach is heavily influenced by Western social philosophy, particularly Aristotelianism, as surmised in Book IV of his (Aristotle’s) Political treatise. After examining several prominent works on peace, conflict, and development by African scholars, we observe that their works are not immune from this utilitarian influence. We, therefore, argue for a refocusing and hermeneutical re-understanding of peace as a process in a continuum rather than as the means towards an end. The paper, therefore, critiques the teleological presuppositions of peace-conflict-development narrative discourse in classical and contemporary African literature. It also employed narrative theory in explaining the nexus between peace, conflict, and development in contemporary times. The explanatory and historical designs were adopted to facilitate a better understanding of the thrust literature on the ontology of peace, conflict, and development in the contemporary world.

Kajian Hukum Ekonomi Syariah dalam Penyelesaian Wanprestasi Praktik Jual Beli Kayu Jati secara Kredit pada Usaha Dagang Berkah Jati Mlonggo Jepara

&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Problems with business activities often end in conflict because one of the parties defaults or does not fulfill the obligations agreed together. This research aims to determine the resolution of defaults in the practice of buying and selling teak wood at the Berkah Jati Mlonggo Jepara Trading Business and analyze it using a Sharia Economic Law approach. The type of method used in this research is field research based on a sociological juridical approach. To obtain information or data, this research uses data sources in the form of primary data and secondary data. Primary data was obtained by direct interviews with informants or sources, while secondary data consisted of primary legal materials, secondary legal materials, and tertiary legal materials. After the information or data is collected, analysis is then carried out using qualitative descriptive data analysis techniques. The findings of this research indicate that the practice of buying and selling teak wood is carried out in writing using a cash and credit payment system. The credit practices carried out by sellers follow Sharia principles, meaning there is no element of usury. Resolving defaults through negotiation by providing several offers to extend the payment period (rescheduling) and relief from credit installment payments (reconditioning). The realization of default resolution in the practice of buying and selling teak wood in the study of Sharia Economic Law is the seller's effort to create benefits and avoid mafsadah so that the relationship between the seller and the buyer remains harmonious and can avoid hostility.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

Инструментарий борьбы за власть константинопольского триумвирата и Иоанна Кантакузина в гражданской войне 1341–1347 годов

Introduction. As part of the study of the types of non-military measures used by the Constantinople triumvirate (basilissa Anna of Savoy, megas doux Alexios Apokaukos, and patriarch John XIV Kalekas) and John Kantakouzenos during the civil war of 1341–1347, their significance for the course and end of this internal conflict is clarified. The relevance of this work is determined by the insufficient coverage of this aspect in historiography and is also related to the broader topic of the use of non-military measures in various historical periods. Methods and materials. This work is based on the basic principles (historicism, determinism, and objectivity) and methods (historical-comparative, historical-systemic, and historical-genetic) of historical science. Analysis. Based on the analysis of written sources, four types of non-military measures are identified: psychological, political-diplomatic, socio-economic, and ideological measures. We found out that the representatives of the Constantinople triumvirate resorted to all of the above groups of measures, while Kantakouzenos was able to use only two of them. Results. At the end of the work, it was concluded that non-military measures determined the sluggish nature of the conflict and played an important role in the civil war of 1341–1347. In addition, this internal conflict in Byzantium, in our opinion, represents a striking example of medieval hybrid warfare.