Winter Conditions Research Articles

SUV-pedestrian crash severity modelling considering unobserved heterogeneity in means and variances

SUV-type vehicles (light trucks, minivans, vans, SUVs) pose significant risks to pedestrians due to their size and weight. This study analyzed pedestrian crashes involving SUVs using Louisiana traffic crash data (2017–2021) with a random parameter ordered probit model to account for unobserved heterogeneity. Factors linked to higher pedestrian injury severity include winter conditions, divided roads, midblock crossings, business/residential areas, and drivers aged 25–65. Lower injury severity is associated with state highways, city streets, low-speed roads (<25 mph), undivided two-way roads, and intersections. Stability of parameters was observed over time, particularly for crashes involving single SUVs and pedestrians in normal conditions. Variations in variables like "white dashed line" and "proceeding straight ahead" highlight the influence of daylight and speed limits. At the policy level, integrating these findings into traffic management and urban development practices can support a more effective approach to reducing pedestrian injuries in SUV-related crashes.

Time consumption models for predicting harvester productivity when selection cutting, thinning from below, and clearcutting Scots pine-dominated stands in Finnish Lapland

ABSTRACT In this study, time consumption models to predict harvester productivity when selection cutting, thinning from below, and clearcutting Scots pine-dominated (Pinus sylvestris) stands in Finnish Lapland were constructed because no up-to-date or comparable studies were available. A conventional single-grip harvester was used to harvest industrial roundwood from time study stands in winter and fall conditions. The compiled models and parameters can be used to evaluate the feasibility of alternative forest management practices, e.g. the conversion of even-aged stands into continuous cover ones in northern Fennoscandia. Continuous cover forestry and especially selection cutting are considered as a complementary alternative to the dominant even-aged forest management and can facilitate the integration of wood production with multiple uses of boreal forests, e.g. in Finnish Lapland, where reindeer herding, nature-based tourism, and forestry are important livelihoods. The results indicated that harvester time consumption was strongly affected by the stem volume of the harvested trees and the number of harvested stems per hectare. The productivities of selection cutting and thinning from below were at the same level when the volume of harvested stems was equal, and this productivity was significantly lower than in clearcutting.

Transmission line trip faults under extreme snow and ice conditions: a case study

Extreme weather events, particularly snow and ice storms, present significant threats to the stability and reliability of high-voltage transmission lines, leading to substantial disruptions in power supply. This study delves into the causes and consequences of transmission line trip faults that occur under severe winter conditions, with a focused case study in Inner Mongolia—an area frequently impacted by snow and ice hazards. By systematically analyzing field data collected during critical periods of ice accumulation, this research identifies and examines key factors contributing to faults, such as conductor galloping, insulator degradation, and structural fatigue. These issues are often exacerbated by prolonged exposure to low temperatures and high wind speeds, which further compromise the integrity of transmission infrastructure. In addition to field observations, comprehensive testing of the affected insulators and components reveals mechanical and electrical vulnerabilities that play a significant role in the occurrence of trip faults. To combat these challenges, the paper proposes a series of mitigation and prevention strategies. These include enhancing design specifications to ensure resilience against increased ice and wind loads, deploying real-time monitoring systems capable of detecting early indicators of conductor galloping and ice accumulation, and employing advanced de-icing technologies to reduce the risk of ice-related failures. Moreover, the integration of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and artificial intelligence (AI)-based fault detection tools presents promising opportunities for improving remote monitoring capabilities and enabling proactive maintenance interventions. By leveraging these innovative technologies, the resilience of transmission lines in harsh climates can be significantly enhanced. The findings of this study not only provide a comprehensive framework for minimizing the impact of extreme weather on transmission infrastructure but also contribute valuable insights toward fostering a more reliable and resilient power grid capable of withstanding the challenges posed by an increasingly volatile climate.

Extending Satellite Predictions of Coral Disease Outbreak Risk to Non-Seasonal Coral Reef Regions

Coral disease outbreaks have increased in frequency and extent worldwide since the 1970s, coinciding with the rapid increase in ocean warming. Summer and winter temperature-based metrics have proven effective in predicting coral disease outbreaks in seasonal coral reef regions. However, their utility is unknown in non-seasonal coral reef areas. Here, a new methodology, independent of seasonal patterns, is developed for application in both seasonal and non-seasonal coral reef regions. Percentile-based metric thresholds were defined from seasonal equivalents in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) and tested in seasonal and non-seasonal coral reef regions of the tropical Pacific Ocean. Between new and existing methodologies, median differences of 0.00 °C (thresholds) and 0.00 °C-weeks (metrics) for Hot Snap and Cold Snap; and 0.01 °C (threshold) and −0.17 °C-weeks (metric) for Winter Condition were observed among reef pixels of the GBR. The new methodology shows strong consistency with the existing tools used for seasonal regions (e.g., R2 = 0.811–0.903; GBR case studies). Comparisons of the new metrics with disease observations were constrained by the limited availability of disease data; however, the comparisons undertaken suggest predictive capability in non-seasonal regions. To establish robust correlations, further direct comparisons of the new metrics with disease data across various non-seasonal regions and timeframes are essential. With ocean warming projected to persist in the coming decades, improving the predictive tools used to assess ecological impacts is necessary to support effective coral reef management.

The cold tolerance of the terrestrial slug, Ambigolimax valentianus.

Terrestrial molluscs living in temperate and polar environments must contend with cold winter temperatures. However, the physiological mechanisms underlying the survival of terrestrial molluscs in cold environments and the strategies employed by them are poorly understood. Here we investigated the cold tolerance of Ambigolimax valentianus, an invasive, terrestrial slug that has established populations in Japan, Canada, and Europe. To do this, we acclimated A. valentianus to different environmental conditions (differing day lengths and temperatures), then exposed them to sub-zero temperatures and measured overall survival. Then, we measured low molecular weight metabolites using 1H NMR to see if they play a role in their cold tolerance as they do in other invertebrate species. We found that A. valentianus is not strongly freeze tolerant but does become more cold-hardy after acclimation to shorter day lengths. We also found that no metabolites were strongly upregulated in response to winter conditions despite the change in cold hardiness, and instead saw evidence of metabolic suppression leading up to winter such as formate and L-glutamine being suppressed in winter conditions.

Simulation and Economic Benefit Analysis of Carburetor Combined Transport in Winter at a Liquefied Natural Gas Receiving Station

In the winter, a certain LNG receiving terminal operates exclusively with the submerged combustion vaporizer (SCV). However, due to the high operational costs associated with the SCV, a new combined operation scheme utilizing both the SCV and the open rack vaporizer (ORV) has been proposed. First, models for the SCV and ORV gasification units were developed in Aspen HYSYS and validated using actual operational parameters. Next, the relationship between the seawater inlet–outlet temperature difference and the minimum seawater flow rate for the ORV was determined, and an optimized seawater pump operation strategy, considering LNG export volumes, was formulated. Additionally, the relationship between the SCV fuel gas flow rate and LNG export volume was analyzed, and a comparison was made between the operating costs of SCV running independently and the combined SCV-ORV operation under winter conditions. The results of the combined operation experiments indicated that at a seawater inlet–outlet temperature difference of 3 °C, the joint operation mode could save costs by 70–77%; at 2.5 °C difference, it saves 60–67%; at 2 °C difference, it saves 45–50%; at 1.5 °C difference, it saves 35–38%; and at 1 °C difference, it saves 20–23%. This approach achieves optimized economic performance for LNG terminal operations.

Preserving the Past, Embracing the Future: Co-Design Strategies for Achieving Harmony Between Heritage Sites and Accessibility Needs

Canada’s heritage sites, while fewer in number compared to Europe, face significant challenges in accessibility due to strict preservation laws. Many were built before social inclusion became a priority, making them difficult to navigate for individuals with disabilities. For example, cobbled streets with uneven surfaces or significant level differences create obstacles for wheelchair users and others with mobility challenges. This qualitative action research aimed to develop guidelines for shared street designs and innovative solutions that balance heritage preservation with inclusive accessibility. The study involved go along interviews with 21 participants with disabilities in Quebec City’s Petit-Champlain and Place-Royale areas, as well as the Old-Seminary. Insights from these interviews informed a co-design methodology involving three sessions with participants with disabilities, family caregivers, and experts in accessibility and heritage. The co-design sessions generated practical solutions such as lift platforms, accessible signage, and guided handrails, addressing both outdoor and indoor accessibility barriers. For indoor spaces, solutions included integrating acoustic panels and foldable seating, while outdoor recommendations emphasized autonomous access solutions like non-slip coatings and accessible elevators for winter conditions. It was concluded that achieving a balance between preservation and accessibility requires collaboration among architects, designers, heritage experts, and individuals with disabilities. This research highlights the importance of co-design as a method to ensure heritage sites remain culturally significant and universally accessible.

Multiple drivers of spring migration timing for red deer over the past 16 years in northern Europe.

The timing of migration is fundamental for species exploiting seasonally variable environments. For ungulates, earlier spring migration is expected with earlier vegetation green-up. However, other drivers, such as access to agricultural farmland and variation in local conditions, are also known to affect migration. We investigated the timing of spring migration for 96 male and 201 female red deer (Cervus elaphus) using a long-term dataset (2005-2020). Overall, the timing of migration was mainly characterized by large individual variability between and within years (95% range 6 April to 18 June). The spring migration timing was, as expected, later with colder winter and spring conditions (North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) winter and April indices) and later peak vegetation green-up (NDVI), with a five-day delay in green-up causing a migration delay of 1.2 days. Timing was also influenced by local conditions in summer and winter home ranges. Red deer with greater access to farmland and a more variable topography (hence variable plant phenology) in winter delayed migration. Similarly, individuals with higher-elevation summer ranges (with delayed onset of plant growth) also delayed migration. Our analyses highlight that the timing of red deer migration is determined by multiple drivers affecting foraging conditions in the landscape, indicative of considerable phenotypic plasticity.

The level of welfare of male farmed fallow deer kept indoors during the winter

Farmed cervids are not fully domesticated animals, usually kept on large open pastures. However, in intensive breeding farms, animals are often kept indoors during the winter in order to obtain desirable weight gain or avoid deaths. The aim of the study was to assess the stress level in farmed fallow deer (Dama dama) kept indoors during the winter with a changed photoperiod, as well as to analyze the effect of the cortisol level on the animals depending on their age and body mass. Two groups of adult fallow deer males, 15 individuals each, with an average age of 5.9 years, were used in the study. The experimental group was kept in a utility room with a changed photoperiod and a temporary access to an enclosure, while the control group spent the entire time in an outdoor enclosure. Blood samples were collected from all animals three times, at monthly intervals, to determine the cortisol concentration. No differences were found between the study groups. The average cortisol level ranged from 2.86 to 3.92 μg/100 ml in the experimental group and from 3.13 to 3.46 μg/100 ml in the control group. The average cortisol concentration in older stags was similar to that in younger males (3.48 μg/100 ml and 3.42 μg/100 ml, respectively). Simple manipulation procedures do not affect the welfare of farmed fallow deer. Cervids tolerate natural winter conditions well both on the run and in utility rooms with appropriate space.

Suppression of the H3K27me3 demethylase disrupts diapause formation in mosquito Culex pipiens.

Diapause (D) is a hormonally controlled alternative developmental pathway that allows mosquitoes to survive harsh winter conditions. Key characteristics of mosquito diapause include elevated lipid storage, enhanced stress and cold endurance, and extended longevity. These phenotypic changes are often associated with dynamic alterations in the transcriptome and epigenome. In our previous study, we identified significantly lower H3K27me2 levels in the fat body (FB) of diapausing Culex pipiens. However, the specific roles of the repressive H3K27 methylation marks in mosquito diapause have not been investigated. In the present study, we employed the effective histone lysine demethylase inhibitor GSK-J4 to assess the functions of H3K27me3 levels in the fat body on diapause initiation and phenotypes in Cx. pipiens. Results from solid-state NMR (ssNMR), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and biochemical assays suggest that elevated H3K27me3 levels via GSK-J4 inhibition led to disrupted accumulation of lipids and glycogen in diapausing mosquitoes. GSK-J4 treatment also increased the mortality rate, resulting in lower survivability in treated mosquitoes. Together, these findings propose a crucial role for H3K27me3 in diapause formation, particularly related to energy metabolism. Our results provide a potential target for novel vector control strategies for this species.

Delayed post-juvenile moult in malaria-infected Eurasian blackcaps.

Parasites have their strongest impact on fitness when host defences deplete resources needed for other critical life-history stages, such as development, breeding or migration. Among birds, one greatly neglected stage that could be altered by parasites is post-juvenile moult (PJM), through which yearling juvenile birds replace their fast-generated, low-quality juvenile feathers with adult-like feathers after leaving the nest. The earlier the birds complete PJM, the earlier they will be prepared to withstand forthcoming challenges, such as adverse winter conditions or migration. We used data from 435 juvenile Eurasian blackcaps (Sylvia atricapilla) sampled during three years in 26 localities spanning the wide range of environmental conditions across Iberian Spain to test whether haemosporidian infections (presence and abundance in blood of parasites of the genera Haemoproteus, Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon) were related to the progress of PJM. Controlling for body condition, sex, year and date of capture, infected blackcaps (single-infected or co-infected) had lower moult scores indicative of delayed moult, especially when birds had Plasmodium infections or high intensities of Haemoproteus parasites. Our results broaden the range of fitness costs that haemosporidian parasites may have on birds, as delayed post-juvenile plumage acquisition can impact subsequent key life-history stages.

Heat treatment impact on structural-rheological properties of high-parafin oil

Relevance. The pipeline transportation of heavy oils from the extraction site to the processing point is associated with serious problems due to their high viscosity and pour point. Oil deposits form quickly during pumping and causing flow reduction in pipe. Moreover, the increased content of hydrogen sulfide and chloride salts leads to increased rate of corrosion. Structural and mechanical properties and the yield point of highly pourable paraffinic oils depend on a variety of factors, like oil thermostatting temperature. Studying the impact of the heat treatment temperature of highly paraffinic resinous oil on its mobility will allow reducing energy consumption and optimizing the technology of oil pumping and transporting in winter conditions. Aim. To identify the critical temperature ranges for heat treatment of highly paraffinic resinous oil from the Yuzhno-Mayskoe field based on the analysis of data on structural and rheological behaviors, composition of oil sediments and changes in the radii of oil aggregates formed in the studied oil under various heat treatment conditions. Methods. Oil rheological properties were determined using a HAAKE Viscotester iQ rotational viscometer with HAAKE RheoWin measuring device and control system; oil pour point was analyzed using “Kristall” low-temperature indicator of petroleum products meter; asphaltenes were isolated using the “cold” Golde method; oil composition was determined by column liquid adsorption chromatography; oil particle size was recorded by a Photocor Complex spectrometer for dynamic and static light scattering with DynaLS data processing program. Results. The authors have studied heat treatment temperature impact on the viscosity-temperature and energy characteristics of highly paraffinic tarry oil, formation and composition of asphalt, resin and paraffin deposits. They established that the critical temperature of heat treatment is 40°C. At this temperature the densest crystallization structure is formed in the studied oil, characterized by high values of both viscosity, intensive formation of sediment, activation energy of viscous flow and internal energy of destruction of the dispersed structure. It was shown that with photon correlation spectroscopy, during oil heat treatment at 40°C, a spontaneous size increase of oil aggregates occurs in the temperature range of 35–25°C.

Effects of Geographical Origin and Timing of Broodstock Collection on Hatchery Conditioning of the Clam Ruditapes decussatus (L. 1758).

The grooved carpet shell clam (Ruditapes decussatus), widely found along Morocco's coasts and estuaries, is a key economic resource due to its high market value. However, clam production has declined over recent decades, largely due to the overexploitation of natural beds, and recruitment failures, leading to a limited wild spat availability. This study examined how the broodstock collection season (winter vs. summer) and origin (South Atlantic vs. North Mediterranean) affect broodstock performances in hatcheries. The maturity development (condition index (CI) and gonadal condition index (GCI)), histological examination, and reproductive output were evaluated. The results showed that Mediterranean clams achieved a higher maturity during winter conditioning (CI = 13.60 ± 1.02, GCI = 6.01 ± 0.90) than the Atlantic population (CI = 11.51 ± 1.50, GCI = 5.31 ± 1.14). Moreover, Mediterranean clams produced more oocytes per female (2.34 million), despite the lower spawning rate (42%), compared to the Atlantic clams (1.68 million) with a 69% spawning rate by the end of the winter conditioning. These findings highlight the importance of selecting broodstock by geographic origin to optimize shellfish hatchery production.

Optimum sugar syrup feeding intervals for Apis cerana Fab. during the winter dearth period in the sub-tropical area of Nepal

The study aimed to identify the optimal sugar syrup feeding interval for honeybee colonies during the winter dearth period in subtropical region of Nepal to ensure colony survival and maintenance. The focus was on evaluating sealed brood area, sealed honey area, egg-laying activity, and pollen collection. The experiment was conducted in an apiary located in Lamjung district of Nepal. Sugar syrup (1 water: 1 sugar) was fed to honeybee colonies at intervals of 7, 10, 15, and 20-days, along with a control group. Each treatment was replicated across four replications with five beehives in each replication, and data were collected weekly. Parameters such as the sealed brood area, honey storage, egg-laying rate, and pollen cells were measured by counting eggs, pollen cells, and assessing areas covered by sealed brood and honey. Colonies fed sugar syrup at 15-days intervals exhibited the best performance across all measured parameters, including the largest sealed brood area, highest honey reserves, maximum eggs laid by the queen bee, and the most pollen cells. These results indicate that feeding at 15-days intervals supports optimal colony health and activity during low-temperature winter conditions. Feeding sugar syrup at 15-days intervals is the most effective practice for maintaining colony health, ensuring optimal honey reserves, brood production, and pollen collection during the winter dearth period in subtropical areas of Nepal. This feeding strategy is recommended for improving colony survival, maintenance, and overall performance during challenging winter conditions in subtropical region of Nepal.

Multi-objective optimization of building envelope of rural housing in the severely cold region of China based on energy consumption, thermal comfort and cost-effectiveness

The performance of rural residential buildings has a great energy-saving potential due to the great spontaneity and ignorance of the rural residential construction. To solve this problem, this paper provides a multi-objective optimization model based on Chebyshev inequality. The model takes energy consumption, indoor thermal comfort, project cost as optimization objectives and considers operating conditions in winter and summer. This study taking a rural residential house as an example and analysed the influence of its envelope parameters on building performance using EnergyPlus. The parameters of the building envelope were optimized, which verified the superiority of the method. Optimization results showed that the heating energy consumption was reduced by 29%, and the air conditioning energy consumption was reduced by 6%. This study analysed the relationship between the building energy consumption, indoor thermal comfort and the cost by multi-objective optimization method, to provide a new research idea for rural residential research. Optimal design solutions were generated under various weighting coefficients. The model aimed to meet the climatic and economic conditions of northern China and similar regions. Therefore, based on these optimization results, decision-makers can choose optimal design and construction solutions according to their own will.

Simulated winter climate change reveals greater cold than warm temperature tolerance in Chrysolina polita (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae).

Climate change is expected to lead to rising winter temperatures in temperate zones, coinciding with a decrease in winter snow cover. Insects adapted to winter conditions in the temperate zone might be exposed to changing winter conditions and higher temperature fluctuations, which can affect diapause and mortality. We studied the effects of climate change on Chrysolina polita, a temperate zone species overwintering as an adult in the shallow surface of the soil. We tested the effects of increased and fluctuating temperature on the mortality and body composition of the beetles in a laboratory environment, as well as the effects of snow cover removal on the mortality and body mass in field conditions. We found that in the laboratory study, a 2 °C increase in mean temperature increased mortality and resulted in increased lipid consumption, whereas temperature fluctuation caused desiccation of the beetles but did not affect mortality compared to the control condition. In the field study, the snow removal caused the mean soil temperature to decrease by 3 °C and fluctuate (ranging from -26.4 to 2.5 °C compared to a range of -1.7 to 0.5 °C in the control), yet these differences did not affect beetle mortality or body mass. We conclude that C. polita exhibits greater resistance to cold temperatures than to higher temperatures during diapause. Therefore, the rising temperatures associated with climate change can pose challenges for overwintering.

Vegetation Effects on Air Pollution: A Comprehensive Assessment for Two Italian Cities

The role of urban vegetation in urban air quality is usually assessed by considering only the pollutant removal capacity of the plants. This study aims to show, for the first time, the effects of vegetation on air pollutant concentrations through its effects on meteorology, separately from its biogenic emissions. It also investigates how air quality changes when only biogenic emissions are altered by using plants with different emission factors, as well as the potential effects of introducing new vegetation into urban areas. These assessments were conducted using atmospheric modelling systems currently employed for air quality forecasting and planning, configured specifically for the cities of Bologna and Milan. Simulations were performed for two representative months, July and January, to capture summer and winter conditions, respectively. The variability in air concentrations of ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and particulate matter (PM10) within the municipal boundaries was assessed monthly. When evaluating the impact of future vegetation, changes in temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity were also considered. The results indicate that vegetation influences air quality more significantly through changes in meteorological conditions than through biogenic emissions. Changes in biogenic emissions result in similar behaviours in O3 and PM10 concentrations, with the latter being affected by the changes in the concentrations of secondary biogenic aerosols formed in the atmosphere. Changes in NO2 concentrations are controlled by the changes in O3 concentrations, increasing where O3 concentrations decrease, and vice versa, as expected in highly polluted areas. Meteorologically induced vegetation effects also play a predominant role in depositions, accounting for most of the changes; however, the concentrations remain high despite increased deposition rates. Therefore, understanding only the removal characteristics of vegetation is insufficient to quantify its effects on urban air pollution.

The Role of MaFAD2 Gene in Bud Dormancy and Cold Resistance in Mulberry Trees (Morus alba L.)

Bud dormancy is a critical adaptive trait in woody plants, essential for enduring harsh winter conditions. The relationship between bud break timing and cold resistance is complex and has been a subject of debate. This study utilizes a Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) on 201 natural mulberry populations to identify the MaFAD2 gene, which shows the strongest association with bud break timing. Known for its role in cold resistance, MaFAD2′s link to bud break timing suggests a direct correlation between these traits. Expression analysis of MaFAD2 in mulberry trees indicates peak activity in dormant buds, declining as dormancy ends. Selective sweep analysis on germplasms from contrasting climates reveals positive selection in MaFAD2 in cold-resistant Uzbek germplasms. Overexpression of MaFAD2 in early-budding germplasms significantly delays bud break, confirming its regulatory role. These findings highlight MaFAD2 as a key determinant of cold tolerance variability among mulberry germplasms, with its expression directly correlated with bud break timing. This provides a molecular basis for selecting cold-resistant mulberry germplasms based on bud break timing in breeding programs.

Reduced scale experiment and numerical simulation study on different airflow organization modes in large ship painting workshop

Mechanical ventilation is a key means to improve indoor air quality in shipbuilding industry. Appropriate airflow organization will have a perceptible impact on environmental safety, personnel health, and energy conservation. Many ship painting workshops use fully mixed ventilation, making it difficult to meet indoor pollutant standards and save energy. Therefore, it is necessary to optimal design the airflow organization in the ship painting workshop reasonably. This article introduces three new air supply strategies for ship painting workshops, namely piston flow air supply, attached jet air supply, and side air supply, and compares them with the existing mixed air supply. Three operating scenarios have been established, including isothermal conditions in spring and autumn, cooling condition in summer, and heating condition in winter. The airflow and pollutant distribution of each airflow organization are compared through scale model experiments and numerical simulations. Finally, the most suitable strategy for the workshop in each season is selected and promoted for engineering applications.

Experimental Investigation of Wall Confluent Jets on Transparent Large-Space Building Envelopes: Part 1—Application in Heating Greenhouses

Insulating building envelopes is crucial for maintaining indoor thermal comfort, particularly in large-space enclosures like greenhouses having transparent envelopes. Transparent envelopes allow natural light but challenge temperature regulation due to their low thermal mass and high U-values, which enable significant heat transfer between indoor and outdoor environments. This field study aims to experimentally investigate whether warm wall confluent jets (WCJs) can maintain the required indoor climate conditions in a greenhouse exposed to dynamic meteorological conditions in winter. It analyzed the impact of the airflow rate, number of nozzle rows, and room air temperature setpoint on WCJ heating performance on the ceiling, external wall, and room air. Measurements were performed with thermocouples and constant current anemometers, and the response surface methodology evaluated the effect of design variables on WCJ flow, thermal behavior, and the indoor environment. The results show that WCJs provided recommended air velocities and temperatures indoors, with the airflow rate having the strongest effect on flow and thermal behavior, while the number of nozzle rows had a moderate effect. This study developed response surface models related to room air temperature, ceiling surface temperature, external wall temperature, and supply air temperature. Supply temperatures between 27 °C and 40 °C suggest using low-exergy heat sources, like industrial waste heat, to sustain greenhouse operations during winter.