Site Conditions Research Articles

Factor associated with diarrhea incidence in coastal area Bungkutoko, Kendari, Indonesia

Diarrhea is a health problem that has not been resolved until now, even this disease is the main cause of death in toddlers both globally and nationally. Diarrhea cases in the Nambo Health Center work area, Kendari City have continued to increase over the past 3 years. Bungkutoko is one of the sub-districts located in the coastal area of ​​Nambo District, Kendari City. Coastal areas include areas with inadequate sanitation access, with problems including the availability of clean water, toilets and other basic sanitation facilities that can be factors causing diarrhea. This study aims to determine the factors related to the incidence of diarrhea in the coastal area of ​​Bungkutoko. An observational analytic with cross sectional design was conducted in this study. This study was carried out in June 2024 in Bungkutoko Village, Kendari City, Southeast Sulawesi Province. The sample consisted of 70 respondents obtained using non-probability sampling, accidental sampling techniques. Data were collected using questionnaires and observation sheets, then processed and analyzed using a computer program. Data were analyzed bivariately using chi square test and fisher exact (if not eligible for chi square test) with 95% confidence level (α = 0.05). The results showed there was a relationship between water treatment before drinking and the incidence of diarrhea (p-value = 0.03), and there was no relationship between hand washing behavior (p-value = 0.09) and the condition of waste disposal sites (p-value = 0.25) with the incidence of diarrhea in the coastal area of ​​Bungkutoko, Kendari City. Therefore, it is expected that the community can process drinking water before consuming it to avoid diarrhea.

Unveiling the seismic sensitivity of the Himalayan tunnels: a comprehensive assessment through analytical and numerical exploration of P-wave dynamics

This study investigated the seismic sensitivity of tunnels in the Jammu Region (JR) of the northwestern Himalayas, a region characterized by significant seismic activity and complex geological conditions. The research combined both analytical and numerical approaches to assess the influence of site conditions, tunnel lining, and reinforcement properties on tunnel resilience. A key objective is to develop a more reliable seismic assessment method by adopting a P-wave-based approach, which is particularly suitable for mountainous tunnels prone to landslides. The study identified three seismic hazard zones, with peak ground accelerations (PGA) ranging from less than 0.3 g to greater than 0.5 g, providing vulnerability aspects. The major outcomes of this study include guidelines for the design and retrofitting of sustainable and resilient underground structures in the Himalayas, with broader implications for global projects in seismically active and geologically complex regions. The methodologies and insights can be applied to infrastructure projects worldwide, enhancing the safety of communities living in vulnerable areas. This work aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly in promoting resilient infrastructure and sustainable development, contributing to both structural resilience and the geological safety of the Himalayan region.

Examining low-intensity surface fires in boreal forests using sentinel-2 time series and bitemporal terrestrial laser scanning

ABSTRACT In Fennoscandia, wildfires are typically low-intensity surface fires that burn vegetation on the forest floor. Multispectral remote sensing, particularly the normalized burn ratio (NBR) index, is widely used to assess burn severity, but its effectiveness in identifying surface fires under dense canopies is less studied. This study examined the characteristics of surface fires across seven one-hectare test sites in Scots pine-dominated boreal forests in Finland. Fire-induced spectral changes, measured as difference normalized burn ratio (dNBR) values from Sentinel-2 data, were compared with structural changes on the forest floor measured using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). Breakpoint analysis of NBR time series identified most surface fires, with a noticeable decline in NBR values. Fires not identified with the breakpoint analysis had less burned ground vegetation and denser canopy cover. A moderate correlation (r = –0.5) was observed between spectral and volumetric changes, with higher dNBR values corresponding to greater vegetation reduction. However, dense canopies lowered burn severity despite similar ground vegetation volume changes. NBR changes were explained by vegetation volume, canopy cover, and site conditions (R² = 84%). These findings improve understanding of the applicability of multispectral remote sensing in detecting fires, assessing burn area, and estimating burn severity in boreal forests.

Bone Diagenesis and Extremes of Preservation in Forensic Science

Understanding the composition and diagenetic processes of the deposition environment is pivotal to understanding why bone undergoes preservation or diagenesis. This research explores the complex nexus of diagenesis at the extremes of preservation, via the interdependent chemical, and short- and long-term microbial processes that influence diagenesis. These processes include dissolution, ion exchange, hydrolysis, recrystallisation, waterlogging, acidity and alkalinity, soil composition, redox potential, bacterial activity, and microbiome composition. Diagenetic processes are discussed in relation to typical sites and sites with extremes of preservation. Understanding site conditions that impact diagenetic processes is critical to understanding the visual features presented in recovered skeletal material, ensuring an appropriate post-mortem interval is assigned, and for subsequent post hoc analysis of bone.

Savaxay: An Assessment of a Traditional Ivatan House the Case of Teresita Nobleza House in Brgy: Raele, Itbayat, Batanes (Addressing Perspective of SDG 11)

Objective: The objective of this study is to investigate the structural integrity and cultural significance of the traditional Ivatan house, known as savaxay, in Itbayat, Batanes. The research aims to explore the application of modern engineering techniques to enhance the resilience of these traditional structures while preserving their cultural identity, addressing the perspective of SDG 11. Theoretical Framework: This study is framed within the concepts of vernacular architecture, resilience, and sustainable development. It draws on theories of disaster risk reduction, cultural preservation, and the integration of local building materials with modern engineering practices to promote the long-term sustainability of traditional structures in disaster-prone areas. Method: A mixed-methods approach was adopted, incorporating on-site observations, structural analysis, interviews with local artisans, and validation from community members. The study assessed the anatomy of the savaxay in terms of site conditions, foundation, stone walls, wood framing, roofing, and mechanical fasteners to understand the building technology used in the traditional construction of these houses. Results and Discussion: The study reveals that the traditional Ivatan house design, though resilient to past storm conditions, is no longer fully adequate for the increasing intensity of natural disasters. The findings suggest the need for modern engineering interventions, such as incorporating reinforced concrete to enhance stability, while maintaining the cultural identity through local materials like thatch cogon roofing and wood framing. Research Implications: This research provides insights into integrating cultural preservation with modern construction techniques to improve disaster resilience. The findings offer valuable recommendations for other disaster-prone areas that seek to preserve their traditional architecture while adapting to contemporary challenges. Originality/Value: This study contributes to the literature by highlighting the need to innovate traditional construction practices without compromising cultural identity. The research emphasizes the importance of sustainable, resilient architecture and serves as a model for other communities facing similar challenges in disaster resilience and cultural preservation.

Identifying and evaluating causes of waste effect in green building projects

Green building (GB) projects in the Middle East face several causes of waste that occur during design and construction stages. These causes affect the objectives of GB projects (economic, environmental, and social). Therefore, this research aims to define causes of waste in GB projects and evaluate the effect of these causes on the objectives of GB projects. Forty-five causes of waste are determined and classified into five main groups as follows: (G01) green materials, (G02) green building design, (G03) sustainable site, (G04) green building technologies, and (G05) green building stakeholders. Through field surveys, including semi-structured interviews and brainstorming sessions, the probability of occurrence for each cause of waste and impact on the economic, environmental, and social objectives are evaluated, as well as the waste severity is determined based on a combined effect of probability and impacts. The correlations among the waste indices are assessed, and the highest correlation is observed between probability and economic followed by economic and social objective. The results show that the most significant cause of waste that has the highest value for economic, environmental, and social objectives is “Poor assessment of site conditions before design, such as topography, hydrology, climate, vegetation, and soil.” Group 05 has the maximum number of critical causes of waste, which is considered the most significant group, due to its high values related to all objectives. Results indicate that the economic objective is classified as the most affected one by the causes of waste, followed by the environmental objective.

The Design of Tanks’ Settlement and Onshore Pipelines to Withstand Earthquake-Induced Geohazards and Difficult Site Conditions: Its Application in the Region of Kalochori, Thessaloniki, Greece

Designing petroleum tanks that are inter-related with pipelines in a founding position containing very compressible soil are a challenging task, particularly when a possible high-water table and considerably high seismicity are also present. Some of the issues that occur are the problems of the time dependence of settlement behavior as well as the earthquake response of the soil–structure interaction system. This work intends to portray the following: (a) an estimation of the foundations and the corresponding consolidation time response and (b) the earthquake-induced geohazard as well as the soil–structure interaction considered for the foundation of the tanks alongside pipelines in a suburban area in Greece, namely Kalochori of Thessaloniki. A numerical analysis considering the dynamic and static behavior and inter-relation among the soil mass and the buried pipeline alongside the system of the foundation type and the soil beneath is performed. Also, the foundation type that was finally chosen as the optimized solution, namely the set of gravel piles and the subsequent prestress loading, is presented and discussed. Taking into account that the soil in the vicinity of the foundation will have its shear strength during an earthquake decreased to almost zero, risk reduction actions may be suggested for large stresses imposed on the pipeline. The methodology for the dimensionality of the gravel pile group as well as the preloading session indicate that a substantial reduction in the displacements of more than 50% is obtained with the combination of the methods, something that would not be feasible if the methods were implemented individually.

A Pilot Study of Instrumented Unbonded Concrete Overlay in Toronto

Unbonded concrete overlays provide structural rehabilitation and can be cost effective when the existing pavements are highly distressed and/or removal of existing pavement layers is not desirable. This paper describes a pilot study, which involves a three way partnership between the University of Waterloo, the Cement Association of Canada and the City of Toronto, to evaluate and document the performance of the first instrumented unbonded concrete overlay in Canada. The rehabilitation area is located at a heavily-trafficked intersection on Bloor Street and Aukland Road in the City of Toronto. The large volumes of bus traffic from the nearby subway station caused significant damage to the pavement structure. The rehabilitation design was composed of placing an unbonded concrete overlay on Bloor Street and replacing the section on Aukland Road with full depth exposed concrete. Twelve strain gauges are embedded in the concrete layer and they are strategically located along the wheel paths of the buses. The sensors are being monitored to assess long-term performance of the concrete overlay and the full depth concrete subjected to traffic and climatic loads. This paper outlines the design parameters, site conditions, and material properties of the overlay. The construction and full-scale instrumentation of this project are described, followed by preliminary analyses of up-to-date performance records.

Use of Innovative Pre-Cast Concrete Slab Repair Technology in Canada

\In 2004, the Ministry of Transportation Ontario (MTO) carried out a trial project to evaluate construction techniques for pre-cast concrete slab repairs in concrete pavement. The trial was carried out on Highway 427, a heavily trafficked freeway in Toronto, Canada. The trial project required demonstrations of three pre-cast concrete pavement full-depth repair methods: the Fort Miller Super-SlabTM Intermittent Method, the Fort Miller Super-SlabTM Continuous Method, and the Michigan Method. Each method involves designing and fabricating pre-cast concrete slabs to replace deteriorated concrete pavement. The methods differ in how the base is prepared and how the pre-cast slab is installed and dowelled to the existing concrete pavement. Non-destructive testing using a Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) was undertaken after construction to assess load transfer efficiency (LTE) and to detect loss of support underneath the pre-cast slab. Details of the methodologies, site conditions, contract specifications, construction and FWD analysis are presented. This is the first construction experience in Canada with innovative pre-cast concrete slab repairs for concrete pavements. MTO will continue to monitor the field performance of these technologies and assess the cost effectiveness of this alternative to full-depth fast-track concrete repairs.

Numerical analysis of the large-scale water supply network accident consequences on the engineering and geological conditions of a heritage site

Recent accidents in water supply networks have the negative impact on the state of the historical and architectural heritage of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra, which has been formed over many centuries and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. We have analysed the water supply system emergency situation on the territory of the Metropolitan Garden that occurred in October 2022 during the Russian military aggression. It caused surface sinkholes, increased groundwater levels, and significant destruction of a historical underground – the Metropolitan Cellar. The study was carried out using numerical analysis implemented in Plaxis 2D. To resolve the uncertainties of the accident, several options for developing the emergency situation were considered, taking into account the number of probable pipe leakages, their size, etc. Accident parameterization was performed with a leakage volume of 1600.0 m3/day, considering damage to the water supply network in two locations. The volume of the watered soil mass was 7.0-8.5 thousand m3. We evaluated the state of destruction of the southern and southeastern branches of the Metropolitan Cellar. Engineering measures for strengthening the section of the Monastery walls with buttress elements, increasing the width of the foundations by means of additional concrete and piling are studied. The numerical calculations were verified using the results of geophysical surveys. Comparison of analytical calculations, geophysical surveys and field surveys showed that parts of the underground structure were completely destroyed. Their restoration is possible only by modern methods through reconstruction, that will lead to a loss of authenticity, which is unacceptable for historical structures. To take preventive actions for the protection of monuments, it is necessary to conduct continuous monitoring.

From forests to farming: identification of photosynthetic limitations in breadfruit across diverse environments.

Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) is a prolific tropical tree producing highly nutritious and voluminous carbohydrate-rich fruits. Already recognized as an underutilized crop, breadfruit could ameliorate food insecurity and protect against climate-related productivity shocks in undernourished equatorial regions. However, a lack of fundamental knowledge impedes widespread agricultural adoption, from modern agroforestry to plantation schemes. Here, we used a multi-environment breadfruit variety trial across the Hawaiian Islands to determine photosynthetic limitations, understand the role of site conditions or varietal features, and define their contributions to agronomic efficiency. Photosynthetic rates were dependent on location and variety, and strongly correlated with fruit yield (r2=0.80, P<0.001). Photochemistry was suitable to full-sunlight conditions, with a saturation point of 1545 PAR, Vcmax of 151μmolm-2s-1, and Jmax of 128μmolm-2s-1, which are high-end compared to other tropical and temperate tree crops. However, limitations on CO2 assimilation were imposed by stomatal characteristics, including stomatal density (P<0.05) and diurnal oscillations of stomatal conductance (>50% reductions from daily maxima). These constraints on CO2 diffusion are likely to limit maximum productivity more than photochemistry. Our results comprise the first comprehensive analysis of breadfruit photosynthesis, successfully links ecophysiology with fruit yield, and identifies vital traits for future research and management optimization.

Assessment of the Current Soil-ecological Condition of the Reclamation Sites in the Mountain Taiga Subzone of Kuzbass

The soil-ecological condition of the sites after reclamation was analyzed and an attempt was made to demonstrate that it is possible to use NDVI vegetation index values as an additional tool for its assessment. It was found that in the areas where organ-accumulative embryozems dominate in the soil cover structure (more than 85 %) their soil-ecological condition is characterized as satisfactory (from 22 to 29 %). It was revealed that NDVI vegetation index for the reclamation sites (average value from three images for 2024) above 0.3 indicates the soil-ecological condition after reclamation of disturbed lands as satisfactory. It is concluded that the application of NDVI index as an indicator of soil-ecological condition of reclamation sites is possible, but for more accurate information it is necessary to create a database of long-term studies based on instrumental methods in the field.

Blasting of Unstable Rock Elements on Steep Slopes

The improvement of safety conditions on hazardous rock slopes in civil work, mining and quarrying, and urban environments can be achieved through the use of explosives for the removal of unstable rock elements and final profiling. This technique is often applied because, in most cases, drill and blast operations, where they can be used, are cheaper and faster than other techniques and require fewer subsequent maintenance interventions. Blasting represents a suitable and effective solution in terms of different geometries, rock formation types, access to site, safety, and the long-term durability of results. The primary purpose of this approach is the improvement of the safety conditions of sites, depending on their local features, as well as the safety of workers, so that the blasting scheme, geometry, and firing can be carefully adapted, thus imposing relevant limitations on the operating techniques. All these constraints associated with complex logistics make it difficult to standardize the demolition technique, due to different situations in terms of extension, location, fracturing state, and associated traffic risk. Considering the significant number of influencing factors for both the rock mass features and for the topography, the present research has been necessarily validated through the analysis of several case histories, thus on an experiential basis focusing on some simple control parameters to help engineers and practitioners regarding the first design and control of blasting schemes.

MATES in Manufacturing: A Cluster RCT Evaluation of a Workplace Suicide Prevention Program.

The MATES in Construction suicide prevention program was adapted to the manufacturing sector and evaluated in a pilot of the program. Ten manufacturing worksites were randomly assigned to intervention (5 sites) and wait-list control (5 sites) conditions in a two-arm cluster randomized design. 1245 workers responded at baseline (87% response rate) and 648 at final (35% response rate). Literacy of Suicide Scale (LOSS) was assessed as a process outcome, and help-seeking intentions as the primary outcome (General Help-Seeking Questionnaire [GHSQ] score). Secondary outcomes included help sought, suicidal thoughts and likelihood of suicide attempt scores, and Kessler-6 scores. Linear mixed models for repeated measures were used in intention-to-treat (ITT) and completer analyses. All sites finished the trial, with intervention periods ranging from 8 to 11 months; however, none of the five intervention sites fully implemented the intervention as planned. ITT analyses showed an improvement in LOSS scores within the intervention group (0.49, 95% CI 0.13-0.49), but the mean difference in change between intervention and control included the null (0.34, 95% CI -0.10 to 0.80). The primary outcome of GHSQ scores also improved within the intervention group, but the difference in change included the null (mean difference 1.52, 95% CI -0.69 to 3.74). No secondary outcomes improved relative to control in ITT or completers analyses. Exploratory analysis of disaggregated GHSQ help sources showed greater improvement in mean difference in change for the main MATES message of seeking help from MATES Connectors. The intervention, as implemented, was not effective at achieving the primary or secondary outcomes. Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry: ACTRN 12622000122752.

Generating Input Ground Motions for Seismic Risk Assessment Using Recorded Ground Motions from the Moderate Magnitude Earthquake

To secure the seismic performance of structures, seismic risk assessment is necessary to quantify safety against beyond-design-based earthquakes and seismic design. For the seismic risk assessment of structures, the input ground motions corresponding to the seismic intensity for evaluation are required as seismic loads, which must reflect the tectonic characteristics and site conditions. In this study, ground motions recorded in regions of low to moderate seismicity were used to generate examples of input ground motions for seismic risk assessment. A uniform hazard spectrum (UHS) was used as the target spectrum for risk assessment, following the guidelines. The magnitude and distance parameters of the scenario earthquake for seismic risk assessment were determined via hazard de-aggregation. The empirical Green’s function method (EGFM) was used to match the ground motion recorded at the site with the seismic intensity required for seismic risk assessment. In addition, a spectral matching process was applied to ensure that the input ground motion was compatible with the response spectrum used in seismic risk assessment. In this process, the convergence characteristics of the spectral matching to the target spectrum were analyzed. Consequently, the spectral conditions for selecting the ground motion for the seismic risk assessment were determined.

TRANSVERSE CRACK DETERIORATION MODEL FOR JRCP

A transverse crack deterioration prediction model was developed for JRCP. This model was developed as a part of a larger rigid pavement performance study sponsored by the FHWA. The model is based on the performance of 111 JRCP sections surveyed under this study. The sections are located throughout the United States and represent different climatic regions and designs. Based on the analysis of the model, the effect of design features and site conditions (traffic and climatic variables) on expected pavement life were analyzed. Finally, the model was applied to develop recommendations for design of JRCP pavements to reduce crack deterioration.

Importance of Considering Near-Surface Attenuation in Earthquake Source Parameter Estimation: Insights from Kappa at a Dense Array in Oklahoma

ABSTRACT Separating earthquake source spectra from propagation effects is challenging. The propagation effect contains a site-dependent term related to the high attenuation of shallow sediments. Neglecting the site-dependent attenuation can cause large biases and scattering in the corner-frequency (fc) estimates, resulting in significant stress-drop deviations. In this study, we investigate shallow attenuation at the LArge-n Seismic Survey in Oklahoma (LASSO) and site-related biases and scattering in source parameter measurements due to simplified attenuation models. We measure the high-frequency spectral decay parameter kappa on the vertical acceleration spectra of regional earthquakes (125 km away). The site-dependent kappa (κ0,acc) suggests that attenuation increases rapidly at shallow depth and is highly site-dependent. 10%–75% of the attenuation is site-dependent for S waves and even larger for P waves. The quality factor for S waves (QS) ranges from 10 to 100 in the upper 400 m. QP for P waves is mostly below 10 within the same depth. The Quaternary sediments tend to be more attenuating (QS&amp;lt;30), but the Permian rocks also can have high attenuation. We demonstrate that using a non-site-dependent attenuation model in single-spectra fitting leads to large scattering in fc estimates among stations with apparent good fits. The apparent fc can significantly deviate when the range of site-dependent kappa is large or with a higher assumed source spectral fall-off rate n. The biases in apparent fc depend on site condition and distance; however, the correlation between fc and these factors might not be obvious, depending on model assumptions. An apparent increase of stress drop with magnitude in a previous study for local microearthquakes (1.3&amp;lt;Mw&amp;lt;3.0) can be largely negated by including a site term, restricting to sites on the higher Q formations, and fixing n. This study highlights the importance of considering near-surface attenuation when modeling source parameters.

Assessing the sustainability of repetitive floor plan using Building Information Modelling-DIGITAL TWINS framework

Various factors, including the nature of the utilized equipment, labour expertise, availability of resources, and meteorological circumstances, might impact the efficiency of work on construction sites. As a result, site and planning engineers must continuously monitor and assess construction progress considering site conditions and the performance of used construction resources. In multi-storey buildings, repetitive floor construction plan impacts enormously construction site sustainability. To identify an optimal set of construction resources, this paper presents Building Information Modelling-DIGITAL-TWINs (BIMDTs) framework, which planners and site engineers can use to easily monitor and control workflow progress of the repetitive floor. Using a digital model, DTs replicate the actual workflow process on a building site and guarantee a consistent information flow. To guarantee information flow between the building site and the digital model, several communication technology tools could be deployed and tested (High-definition site construction camera, regular site monitoring using drones, infrared smart sensors, etc.). The initial results of this research show an important improvement in the sustainability of construction sites. Reduced formworks oil consumption, improved human resource safety, and increased site resource profitability were observed in several treated real cases.

Fruit Bagging Enhances Peel Color and Affects Fruit Quality of Citrus Under Protected Screen-grown Grapefruit-like Hybrid ‘914’

Fruit external color is one of the primary factors associated with consumer choice at the market level. Grapefruit, pomelos, and grapefruit-like hybrids are fruits that can develop different external colors based on horticultural practices. The fruit of ‘914’, which is a grapefruit-like hybrid, is similar to grapefruit in flavor and appearance; however, it has a higher total soluble solids content. The fruit rind tends to be green-yellow to yellow with a pink blush, depending on the harvest date and site conditions. Fruit bagging is a horticultural practice that has been used for more than a century to improve the product quality and appearance of various fruit crop species. During our experiments, fruits of ‘914’ were bagged at two locations in Central Florida to determine the effects of bagging on external fruit color and internal fruit quality. Both locations had fruit-bearing trees in citrus under protected screen structures to exclude Asian citrus psyllid from the cropping system. Fruits were bagged in Jul 2023 and followed until harvest. At the Alturas, FL, USA site, there was one harvest date; however, at the Citrus Research and Education Center site, there were two harvest dates. Data trees were strip-harvested on each harvest date. Fruit weight, diameter, length, and peel color as well as total soluble solids, titratable acidity, and maturity index (soluble solids:acid) were measured. The results indicated that bagging ‘914’ positively influences external peel color and can affect internal fruit quality. More research is needed to determine the optimal windows of fruit bagging of ‘914’ grapefruit-like hybrid and the effects of bagging on consumer sensory perception and postharvest quality.

Functionalized amino acid-based injectable hydrogels for sustained drug delivery.

Drug delivery vehicles optimize therapeutic outcomes by enhancing drug efficacy, minimizing side effects, and providing controlled release. Injectable hydrogels supersede conventional ones in the field of drug delivery owing to their less invasive administration and improved targeting. However, they face challenges such as low biodegradability and biocompatibility, potentially compromising their effectiveness. To address these limitations, a modified amino acid-based pH-responsive injectable shear-thinning hydrogel cl-β-CD-g-p(Gly-MA) has been developed as an efficient drug carrier. In the two-step synthetic approaches, first, the well-known amino acid glycine (Gly) is modified to form glycine methacrylate (Gly-MA). Afterward, Gly-MA is chemically crosslinked with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD), an oligosaccharide, using an ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) crosslinker. The presence of these biomaterials as building blocks enhances the biocompatibility, hemocompatibility, and biodegradability of the hydrogel. They also reduce the risk of immunogenicity. The unique property of easy injectability enables minimally invasive administration. This feature also helps prolong drug retention at the target site, further optimizing drug delivery efficiency. Moreover, the pH-responsive feature of the developed cl-β-CD-g-p(Gly-MA) hydrogel ensures controlled drug release in response to the physiological conditions of the target site, enhancing therapeutic efficacy. The study focuses on investigating the in vitro loading and release of diclofenac sodium (DS), a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used to treat arthritic pain and inflammation.