Conditions Of Outer Space Research Articles

Design of a Radiation-Hardened SRAM Cell using 16nm Technology Node

Electronic circuits are exposed to very high energy radiation in the harsh conditions of outer space. This leads to soft errors such as single-event upsets (SEU), double-event upsets (DEU) and single-event transients (SET). The memory circuits are the most susceptible to these soft errors resulting in severe data loss. This paper proposes the design for an SRAM cell that is radiation hardened by design (RHBD). A comparative study of the standard SRAM cell and the RHBD SRAM cell indicates that the proposed design is resilient to SEUs and DEUs. The proposed design is an improvement on the 8T SRAM cell design and includes a 20T triple interlocked cell (TICE) design. The error correction capabilities of both designs are compared by manually injecting bit upsets at crucial nodes in the circuit. It is observed that the TICE design provides a 96.75% and 98.5% improvement over the standard 8T cell for 1-0 and 0-1 bit upsets respectively. The proposed design has been implemented using the 16nm model from the Arizona State University’s Predictive Technology Model (ASU-PTM), and the LTSpice software was used to carry out the simulations. Tools used: LTSpice v17 is the tool used to design the schematic circuits and to obtain the simulation results. The library file used to design the schematic is the 16nm technology node from the library of the Arizona State University’s Predictive Technology Model (ASU-PTM). Methods: To perform a comparative study of the 8T SRAM and 20T TICE, the schematic circuits were designed using the 16nm technology node in LTSpice. A baseline for the expected voltages of logic 0 and logic 1 is established before injecting errors at the sensitive voltage nodes of the circuit. The next step is to manually inject bit upsets at the crucial nodes of the memory cell to induce either a 0-1 upset or a 1-0 upset. The read/write operation is carried out along with the error injection to compare the error mitigation capacity of the circuits. Finally, the results are tabulated to prove that the 20T TICE is resilient to soft errors arising from exposure to high radiation. Results: During the normal operation of the 8T SRAM cell, the observed output voltage corresponding to logic 0 and logic 1 are 25mV and 780mV respectively. The voltage levels increased to 400mV during a 0-1 upset and dropped to 25mV during a 0-1 bit upset. This indicates that the cell is not reliable. In case of the 20T RHBD cell, the voltage levels for the normal operation were 5mV (logic 0) and 780mV (logic 1). The major improvement is shown in the case where the 20T TICE is injected with bit upsets, since it delivers a voltage of just 6mV during a 0-1 bit upset and maintains a voltage of 770mV during a 1-0 bit upset. Conclusion: The work performs the schematic designs for the comparison of the error mitigation capabilities of a 8T SRAM cell and a 20T TICE which is radiation hardened by design. The study proves that the 20T cell is capable of successfully mitigating both a 1-0 bit upset and a 0-1 bit upset

Artificial nociceptor based on interface engineered ferroelectric volatile memristor

Recent advancements in neuromorphic computing driven by memristors, which emulate biological synapses and neurons, have spurred the development of innovative information technologies. To extend memristor applications to artificial nervous systems, electronic receptors are crucial for converting external stimuli into signals for the internal nervous system. Key requirements for integrating neuron devices into neuromorphic computing include achieving threshold behavior, minimizing power consumption, and ensuring compatibility with complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology. Hafnium-based ferroelectric memristors are known for their robust ferroelectric properties at nanoscales and compatibility with CMOS technology. However, their non-volatile resistive switching has historically limited their suitability for neuron sensory applications requiring threshold switching. This study demonstrates threshold switching behavior in a TiN/Hf0.67Zr0.33O2(HZO)/TiOx/TiN heterostructure by incorporating a nanoscale TiOx interfacial layer as an oxygen reservoir. This layer facilitates the formation of oxygen vacancies within the ferroelectric HZO layer, serving as internal charge trap sites. As a result, hafnium-based ferroelectric memristors exhibit volatile switching characteristics, enabling them to function as nociceptive devices through internal charge trapping and detrapping mechanisms. These volatile memristors are suitable for artificial nociceptor systems requiring responses such as threshold detection, relaxation, allodynia, and hyperalgesia to external stimuli. This capability opens avenues for developing advanced humanoid robots capable of rapid adaptation and response in challenging environments such as outer space or hazardous conditions, leveraging real-time sensory processing for effective operation and survival.

Amorphous calcium carbonate enhances osteogenic differentiation and myotube formation of human bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells and primary skeletal muscle cells under microgravity conditions

Astronauts are exposed to severely stressful physiological conditions due to microgravity and increased space radiation. Space environment affects every organ and cell in the body and the significant adverse effects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton (spaceflight osteopenia). Amorphous Calcium Carbonate (ACC) emerges as a promising candidate for prevention of these effects, owing to its unique physicochemical properties and its potential to address the intricately linked nature of bone-muscle crosstalk. Reported here are two studies carried out on the International Space Station (ISS). The first, performed in 2018 as a part of the Ramon-Spacelab project, was a preliminary experiment, in which stromal murine cells were differentiated into osteoblasts when ACC was added to the culture medium. A parallel experiment was done on Earth as a control. The second study was part of Axiom-1‘s Rakia project mission launched to the ISS on 2022 utilizing organ-on-a-chip methodology with a specially designed autonomous module. In this experiment, human bone-marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (hBM-MSCs) and human primary muscle cells were cultured in the presence or absence of ACC, in duplicates. The results showed that ACC enhanced differentiation of human primary skeletal muscle cells into myotubes. Similarly, hBM-MSCs were differentiated significantly better into osteocytes in the presence of ACC leading to increased calcium deposits. The results, combined with previous data, support the use of ACC as an advantageous supplement for preventing muscle and bone deterioration in outer space conditions, facilitating extended extraterrestrial voyages and colonization.

Genome stability of <i>Bacillus velezensis</i> after two-year exposure in open space

Spore-forming bacteria have a unique resistance to negative environmental conditions, including aggressive space factors, and are an excellent model for studying adaptation mechanisms and survival strategies at the molecular level. The study analyzed the genome of Bacillus velezensis, which remained viable after a two-year exposure in outer space on the outer surface of the ISS as part of the Test space experiment. A comparative analysis of the draft genomes of the exhibit strain and the ground control did not reveal significant changes, the average nucleotide identity was 99.98%, which indicates the ability of microorganisms to maintain genome stability in space conditions, due to both increased stress resistance of bacterial spores and efficient operation of the system. repair of accumulated changes. The study of single nucleotide polymorphism in the genome of Bacillus velezensis revealed nine point substitutions, three of which are in intergenic regions, 6 in protein-coding genes, three of them are missense mutations, two nucleotide deletions leading to a shift in the reading frame, and one synonymous substitution. The profiles of the housekeeping genes were determined during MLST typing, and it was found that the allelic profiles obtained for B. velezensis T15.2 and 924 strains do not correspond to any of the previously described sequence types. The presented results indicate the ability of Bacillus velezensis bacteria to maintain the viability of spores and the integrity of the genome for a long time under extreme conditions of outer space, which is important for the problem of planetary protection, as well as the potential possibility of implementing biotechnological processes based on Bacillus velezensis during space exploration.

Atp6v1h Deficiency Blocks Bone Loss in Simulated Microgravity Mice through the Fos-Jun-Src-Integrin Pathway.

The microgravity conditions in outer space are widely acknowledged to induce significant bone loss. Recent studies have implicated the close relationship between Atp6v1h gene and bone loss. Despite this, the role of Atp6v1h in bone remodeling and its molecular mechanisms in microgravity have not been fully elucidated. To address this, we used a mouse tail suspension model to simulate microgravity. We categorized both wild-type and Atp6v1h knockout (Atp6v1h+/-) mice into two groups: regular feeding and tail-suspension feeding, ensuring uniform feeding conditions across all cohorts. Analysis via micro-CT scanning, hematoxylin-eosin staining, and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase assays indicated that wild-type mice underwent bone loss under simulated microgravity. Atp6v1h+/- mice exhibited bone loss due to Atp6v1h deficiency but did not present aggravated bone loss under the same simulated microgravity. Transcriptomic sequencing revealed the upregulation of genes, such as Fos, Src, Jun, and various integrin subunits in the context of simulated microgravity and Atp6v1h knockout. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) further validated the modulation of downstream osteoclast-related genes in response to interactions with ATP6V1H overexpression cell lines. Co-immunoprecipitation indicated potential interactions between ATP6V1H and integrin beta 1, beta 3, beta 5, alpha 2b, and alpha 5. Our results indicate that Atp6v1h level influences bone loss in simulated microgravity by modulating the Fos-Jun-Src-Integrin pathway, which, in turn, affects osteoclast activity and bone resorption, with implications for osteoporosis. Therefore, modulating Atp6v1h expression could mitigate bone loss in microgravity conditions. This study elucidates the molecular mechanism of Atp6v1h's role in osteoporosis and positions it as a potential therapeutic target against environmental bone loss. These findings open new possibilities for the treatment of multifactorial osteoporosis.

Far-red light photoacclimation in a desert Chroococcidiopsis strain with a reduced FaRLiP gene cluster and expression of its chlorophyll f synthase in space-resistant isolates.

Some cyanobacteria can use far-red light (FRL) to drive oxygenic photosynthesis, a phenomenon known as Far-Red Light Photoacclimation (FaRLiP). It can expand photosynthetically active radiation beyond the visible light (VL) range. Therefore, it holds promise for biotechnological applications and may prove useful for the future human exploration of outer space. Typically, FaRLiP relies on a cluster of ~20 genes, encoding paralogs of the standard photosynthetic machinery. One of them, a highly divergent D1 gene known as chlF (or psbA4), is the synthase responsible for the formation of the FRL-absorbing chlorophyll f (Chl f) that is essential for FaRLiP. The minimum gene set required for this phenotype is unclear. The desert cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis sp. CCMEE 010 is unusual in being capable of FaRLiP with a reduced gene cluster (15 genes), and it lacks most of the genes encoding FR-Photosystem I. Here we investigated whether the reduced gene cluster of Chroococcidiopsis sp. CCMEE 010 is transcriptionally regulated by FRL and characterized the spectral changes that occur during the FaRLiP response of Chroococcidiopsis sp. CCMEE 010. In addition, the heterologous expression of the Chl f synthase from CCMEE 010 was attempted in three closely related desert strains of Chroococcidiopsis. All 15 genes of the FaRLiP cluster were preferentially expressed under FRL, accompanied by a progressive red-shift of the photosynthetic absorption spectrum. The Chl f synthase from CCMEE 010 was successfully expressed in two desert strains of Chroococcidiopsis and transformants could be selected in both VL and FRL. In Chroococcidiopsis sp. CCME 010, all the far-red genes of the unusually reduced FaRLiP cluster, are transcriptionally regulated by FRL and two closely related desert strains heterologously expressing the chlF010 gene could grow in FRL. Since the transformation hosts had been reported to survive outer space conditions, such an achievement lays the foundation toward novel cyanobacteria-based technologies to support human space exploration.

Bread Wheat in Space Flight: Is There a Difference in Kernel Quality?

Planning long-term space flights necessarily includes issues of providing food for the crew. One of the areas of research is the development of technologies for independent production of food by the crew. Extensive research on lettuce has confirmed that the "space production" of lettuce is not inferior to that on Earth, even in the absence of gravity, but the same deep understanding of the quality of grain crops has not yet been achieved. Therefore, the goal of our work is to establish whether the conditions for growing wheat in outer space without gravity affect the weight and basic parameters of the grain, and whether this leads to increased asymmetry of the kernel and distortion of the starch composition. The objects of the study were wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) kernels of the Super Dwarf cultivar. Of which, 100 kernels matured in outer space conditions in the Lada growth chamber on the International Space Station (ISS), and 85 kernels of the control wheat grown in a similar growth chamber under terrestrial conditions. It has been established that kernels from ISS have significant differences to a smaller extent in weight, area, length, and width of the kernel. However, the kernels under both conditions were predominantly large (the average weight of a kernel in space is 0.0362 g, and in terrestrial conditions-0.0376 g). The hypothesis that the level of fluctuating asymmetry will increase in outer space was not confirmed; significant differences between the options were not proven. In general, the kernels are fairly even (coefficients of variation for the main parameters of the kernel are within 6-12%) and with a low or very low level of asymmetry. The length of starch granules of type A in filled and puny kernels is significantly greater in kernels from ISS than in the control, and in terms of the width of starch granules B and roundness indices, both experimental variants are the same. It can be assumed that the baking qualities of earthly kernels will be slightly higher, since the ratio of type B starch granules to type A is 5-8% higher than on the ISS. Also, the width of the aleurone layer cells in mature kernels was significantly inferior to the result obtained on Earth. The work proposes a new method for establishing the asymmetry of kernels without a traumatic effect (in early works, it was supposed to study asymmetry in transverse sections of the kernels). Perhaps this will make it possible to further develop a computer scanning program that will determine the level of asymmetry of the wheat fruit.

Simulated Microgravity-Induced Changes to Drug Response in Cancer Cells Quantified Using Fluorescence Morphometry.

Unlike plants that have special gravity-sensing cells, such special cells in animals are yet to be discovered. However, microgravity, the condition of apparent weightlessness, causes bone, muscular and immune system dysfunctions in astronauts following spaceflights. Decades of investigations show correlations between these organ and system-level dysfunctions with changes induced at the cellular level both by simulated microgravity as well as microgravity conditions in outer space. Changes in single bone, muscle and immune cells include morphological abnormalities, altered gene expression, protein expression, metabolic pathways and signaling pathways. These suggest that human cells mount some response to microgravity. However, the implications of such adjustments on many cellular functions and responses are not clear. Here, we addressed the question whether microgravity induces alterations to drug response in cancer cells. We used both adherent cancer cells (T98G) and cancer cells in suspension (K562) to confirm the known effects of simulated microgravity and then treated the K562 cells with common cancer drugs (hydroxyurea and paclitaxel) following 48 h of exposure to simulated microgravity via a NASA-developed rotary cell culture system. Through fluorescence-guided morphometry, we found that microgravity abolished a significant reduction (p < 0.01) in the nuclear-to-cytoplasm ratio of cancer cells treated with hydroxyurea. Our results call for more studies on the impact of microgravity on cellular drug response, in light of the growing need for space medicine, as space exploration grows.

Adaptability of space habitats using the Rhythmic Buildings strategy

Space habitats, facing extreme conditions in space and on other planetary bodies, should have redundancy and versatility. Although the main challenges in the field have been identified as changes in gravity, radiation protection, extreme temperatures (fluctuations), changes in daylight patterns, and lack of (or less) atmosphere, more (unknown) challenges will inevitably emerge. Therefore, space habitats should extend beyond redundancy and adapt to their surroundings. There are many adaptability strategies for terrestrial habitats but none of these strategies were developed to work in the extreme conditions of outer space. This paper proposes application of a novel adaptability strategy, the Rhythmic Buildings strategy, which aims to develop buildings that adapt to the rhythms of the building's context (frequency, speed, and intensity of changes occurring on the case study location).The strategy is applied to the case study of a Martian habitat at Jezero Crater. The Rhythmic Buildings strategy includes the Rhythmic Framework and its 33 parameters (such as daylight and outdoor temperature) as well as analytical, technical, and design tools – collectively the Rhythmic Toolbox. First, the Framework tool was used to map the changes in the context following the environmental, economy, and society aspects. The rhythms of the case study context include local temperature, pressure, solar radiation, strong weather events (i.e. storms), but also comfort needs of the crew. These rhythms were then translated into a habitat design using an adapted version of the bubble diagram method.Lastly, novel technologies and materials were selected to address the rhythms which includes adaptive properties of materials. Results of the study show that the context's most important challenges are the daily temperature fluctuations and weekly crew schedule, while the most promising adaptability opportunity lies in the daily daylight rhythm. The design that followed the Rhythmic Buildings strategy directly addresses nine out of the 33 parameters and indirectly addresses a further five parameters. The proposed Martian habitat utilises the rhythms of daily temperature cycles and the 24 h daylight rhythm to reinforce the materials structures. The habitat is adaptive and responsive to its surroundings and the crew's needs. In the discussion, speculations are made on how space architecture can develop itself by intrinsically adapting to the rhythms of the environment and evolve into their own typologies, distinctly different than Earth architecture.

Performance analysis and structure optimization for concentrated photovoltaic-phase change material-thermoelectric system in space conditions

High-efficient thermal management is urgently needed for concentrated photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid system due to the high heat flux. In present paper, a three-dimensional model for the hybrid system in outer space conditions was established by coupling phase change temperature control and radiation heat sink technologies to find the propriate thermal management scheme. Firstly, the three shortcomings in the typical hybrid system were proposed and their adverse effects on efficiency were elucidated. Then, a heat transfer pillar for temperature control unit and a newly designed circular fins for heat sink were designed. The effects of structure parameters on power generation performance were investigated, and the interaction between temperature control unit and heat sink were discussed. The results show that the hybrid systems with the newly designed heat transfer pillar and circular fins have higher efficiency. After that, a united structure optimization by artificial neural network-multi-objective genetic algorithm was performed to solve the interaction and to balance the electrical efficiency and power density of hybrid system. The comprehensive power generation performance of hybrid system can be further improved after the optimization. The system with PCM thickness dPCM = 6.33 mm, heat transfer pillar width a = 18.19 mm, fin length L = 49.99 mm and fin radius R = 50 mm, has the maximum average total efficiency (31.83%, 2.98% higher than the typical system); the system with dPCM = 3.02 mm, a = 10.05 mm, L = 47.03 mm and R = 25.86 mm, has the maximum average power density (36.97 W/kg, 15.78% higher than the typical system).

SCIENTIFIC-TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE WORLD’S FIRST UKRAINIAN SPACE COMPLEX «VESELKA»

On October 27, 1961, the first world’s space launch vehicle (not completed and tested well ballistic missile) 11K63 (63S1) with a satellite was launched. The main goal of the new space complex “Veselka” (“Rainbow”) (K11K63) was to define potential branches for the effective usage of space technologies. The weight of the first Ukrainian satellite DS-1 (Dnipropetrovsk satellite) was 310 lbs. The practical usage of new space complex was the launch of artificial satellites weighing up to 990 lbs into low Earth orbit. For comparison, the weight of the first American satellite was 30 lbs. with the 4th stage of the rocket, without the possibility to detach the last stage. The satellite DS-1 passed all tests necessary for that time. It was completely ready for work in the conditions of outer space. But … the first Ukrainian satellite to go into space was DS-2, launched on March 16, 1962, in the 3rd launch attempt. For the first time, an attempt was made to analyze the phenomenon of creating the world’s first space complex and launching serial satellites of the Earth (hereinafter – the well-known series “Cosmos”) against the historical background. The scientific, technical, and military-applied aspects of the development of the space complex were analyzed. The role of the powerful industrial cooperation from the very beginning planned by Academies of Sciences, branch institutes, and scientists of Eastern Europe, France, Sweden, and India (the “Intercosmos” program) for the development of the complex was described. The issues of staff training for the rocket and space industry are particularly underlined as a key factor of success in space. Some inaccuracies regarding the history of Ukrainian satellites were noted and fixed, which are often found in some publications on this topic.

Physiological consequences of space flight, including abnormal bone metabolism, space radiation injury, and circadian clock dysregulation: Implications of melatonin use and regulation as a countermeasure.

Exposure to the space environment induces a number of pathophysiological outcomes in astronauts, including bone demineralization, sleep disorders, circadian clock dysregulation, cardiovascular and metabolic dysfunction, and reduced immune system function. A recent report describing experiments aboard the Space Shuttle mission, STS-132, showed that the level of melatonin, a hormone that provides the biochemical signal of darkness, was decreased during microgravity in an in vitro culture model. Additionally, abnormal lighting conditions in outer space, such as low light intensity in orbital spacecraft and the altered 24-hlight-dark cycles, may result in the dysregulation of melatonin rhythms and the misalignment of the circadian clock from sleep and work schedules in astronauts. Studies on Earth have demonstrated that melatonin regulates various physiological functions including bone metabolism. These data suggest that the abnormal regulation of melatonin in outer space may contribute to pathophysiological conditions of astronauts. In addition, experiments with high-linear energy transfer radiation, a ground-based model of space radiation, showed that melatonin may serve as a protectant against space radiation. Gene expression profiling using an in vitro culture model exposed to space flight during the STS-132 mission, showed that space radiation alters the expression of DNA repair and oxidative stress response genes, indicating that melatonin counteracts the expression of these genes responsive to space radiation to promote cell survival. These findings implicate the use of exogenous melatonin and the regulation of endogenous melatonin as countermeasures for the physiological consequences of space flight.

A Multichannel Superconductor-Based Photonic Crystal Optical Filter Tunable in the Visible and Telecom Windows at Cryogenic Temperature

We design and evaluate the performance of a one-dimensional photonic crystal (PhC) optical filter that comprises the integration of alternating layers of a barium titanate ferroelectric (BaTiO3) and an yttrium oxide dielectric (Y2O3), with a critical high-temperature superconductor defect, yttrium–barium–copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7−X), resulting in the (BTO/Y2O3)N/YBCO/(Y2O3/BTO)N multilayered nanostructure array. Here, we demonstrate that such a nanosystem allows for routing and switching optical signals at well-defined wavelengths, either in the visible or the near-infrared spectral regions—the latter as required in optical telecommunication channels. By tailoring the superconductor layer thickness, the multilayer period number N, the temperature and the direction of incident light, we provide a computational test-bed for the implementation of a PhC-optical filter that works for both wavelength-division multiplexing in the 300–800 nm region and for high-Q filtering in the 1300–1800 nm range. In particular, we show that the filter’s quality factor of resonances Q increases with the number of multilayers—it shows an exponential scaling with N (e.g., in the telecom C-band, Q≈470 for N=8). In the telecom region, the light transmission slightly shifts towards longer wavelengths with increasing temperature; this occurs at an average rate of 0.25 nm/K in the range from 20 to 80 K, for N=5 at normal incidence. This rate can be enhanced, and the filter can thus be used for temperature sensing in the NIR range. Moreover, the filter works at cryogenic temperature environments (e.g., in outer space conditions) and can be integrated into either photonic and optoelectronic circuits or in devices for the transmission of information.

Bearing Extremes: Impacts from Simulated Outer Space Conditions and Effective Ultraviolet Radiation Shielding Materials on Tardigrade Life History.

Questions about astrobiological resilience, whether entities with evolutionary histories on Earth would survive in outer space or on distant planets, for instance, no longer reside exclusively in the science fiction realm. In this study, we assess life history characteristics for individuals in the tardigrade species Grevenius annulatus post exposure to simulated outer space conditions with nonionizing radiation as a proxy for anticipated oxidative stress and damage incurred from exposure to full-spectrum environmental radiation. Using a planetary environment simulator, we exposed unshielded and shielded specimens to UVB and UVC radiation for 30 min and monitored and recorded subsequent life history characteristics. Survivorship was lower in an unshielded group relative to control as well as Kevlar and polyethylene shielded groups, demonstrating that Kevlar and polyethylene reduce impact from these types of nonionizing radiation, which are not expected to fully penetrate the shields. Cumulative egg production was lowest in the unshielded group, but egg viability and average egg production rate was highest. Due to insignificant differences, additional research to determine the relative effectiveness for Kevlar and polyethylene as shielding materials from survivorship and reproduction perspectives is warranted. This work provides a progressive step from which important conditions excluded in the current study, like vibrations, temperatures, debris-impacts, and ionizing radiation, can be included in future studies.

Zwitter Ionization of Glycine at Outer Space Conditions due to Microhydration by Six Water Molecules

We investigate glycine microsolvation with water molecules, mimicking astrophysical conditions, in our laboratory by embedding these clusters in helium nanodroplets at 0.37K. We recorded mass selective infrared spectra in the frequency range 1500-1800 cm^{-1} where two bands centered at 1630 and 1724 cm^{-1} were observed. By comparison with the extensive accompanying calculations, the band at 1630 cm^{-1} was assigned to the COO^{-} asymmetric stretching mode of the zwitter ion and the band at 1724 cm^{-1} was assigned to redshifted C=O stretch within neutral clusters. We show that zwitter ion formation of amino acids readily occurs with only few water molecules available even under extreme conditions.

HIGH PERFORMANCE PROCESSING CLUSTER FOR REMOTE SENSING SPACECRAFTS

Recently, there has been a tendency to complicate real time control algorithms, to process a large amount of information from the satellite payload (optical, radar, communication systems) directly on board and to create highly informative communication lines with both ground stations and other satellites. The conditions of outer space (vacuum, radiation) impose significant restrictions on the computing capabilities of onboard equipment, which is used as an onboard digital computer complex, and lead to a significant increasing in the cost of space components. A high-performance and relatively cheap computing cluster structure of an on-board computer based on widely available single-board minicomputers is proposed, which allows distributing the computing load among several nodes and simultaneously backing up the system. As a component of a computing cluster, it is proposed to use a computing cluster system based on COTS (Commercial off-the-shelf) components, which increases performance by several orders while reducing cost. Calculations have shown that the introduction of redundancy and distribution of computational tasks makes it possible to achieve an MTBF of about 3 years, which is quite enough for the active existence of university satellites. The proposed structure of the onboard computer complex is installed on the university satellite for remote sensing of the Earth in the visible range with controlled optical magnification, after the launch of which it is planned to confirm the reliability of the results obtained in this work. An assessment of the performance and reliability of such a cluster system is given, which has shown the possibility of implementing such a system on a university satellite for Earth remote sensing.

Low Temperature Performance of Solid Electrochemical Capacitors: Effects of Electrolytes Additives and Electrode Design

Solid-state, thin, and flexible electrochemical capacitors (ECs) can provide energy storage for next-generation wearable electronics such as smart textiles and medical sensors. One of the enablers for high performance and safe electrical double layer capacitors ECs is neutral pH polymer electrolytes due to their wide operating potentials, good ionic conductivity and benign chemical nature [1-3]. Nonetheless, the operation temperature is often limited to above the freezing point of water. For example, a polymer electrolyte based on Na2SO4 ion conductor and polyacrylamide (PAM) host has shown a promising performance at ambient (good shelf-life >30 days and wide 1.8 V window with activated carbon [4]), but its performance degraded drastically at sub-zero conditions [5]. Furthermore, it is of practical importance to understand the effect of high surface area porous carbon materials (e.g. carbon nanotube (CNT) [6-7] or activated carbon (AC) [7-9]) on solid EC at low temperatures, which has not been extensively characterized. To ensure robustness of EC devices operating under winter/sub-arctic and outer space conditions, it is necessary to develop proper polymer electrolytes and the right match of electrode/electrolyte for low temperature ECs.In this study, the performances of solid EC cells constructed with carbon electrodes and Na2SO4-PAM-based electrolytes were assessed at ambient and low temperatures. The objectives were to (i) improve the performance of Na2SO4-PAM electrolytes using anti-icing additives and (ii) elucidate the key characteristics of electrodes (i.e. pore structure and electrode loading/thickness) affecting cell performance at low temperatures.To improve the low temperature performance of the Na2SO4-PAM electrolyte, several anti-icing additives (e.g. dimethyl sulfoxide/DMSO or ethylene glycol/EGly) have been investigated and shown promising improvement to the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte at low temperatures. Leveraging the polymer electrolyte with these additives, capacitive CV profiles were attained at -10 ˚C (Fig. 1a), much more pronounced than their binary baseline. The cell performance with the DMSO-containing ternary electrolyte was then evaluated using either CNT or AC electrodes at various carbon loadings (Fig. 1b). Although solid cells with AC electrodes demonstrated higher capacitance at ambient, those with CNT electrodes retained more capacitance at low temperature. This is likely due to better ion accessibility into CNT electrodes with relatively more open pores. Meanwhile, AC electrodes with lower carbon loading have higher capacitance retention at low temperature due to better electrode utilization in a thinner electrode. These observations will provide the guideline for designing the next generation of ECs that are suitable for low temperature applications.

Reflection of Social Aspects of Professional Activity of Cosmonauts

ABSTRACT Cosmonauts represent a specific group of people, whose social bonds, actions, and collective representations are transforming in response to the special conditions of outer space, in which the activity experience is unique for humans. This work studies the reflections of social aspects of the professional activity of cosmonauts in their interviews. The conclusions of the study show that working in a confined space of an orbital station is connected with psychological difficulties; that cosmonaut crews exhibit high psychological compatibility; that cosmonauts have a strong friendships and family connections; that there is effective intercultural communication, which facilitates the joint work in international crews; that democratic management style is the most widespread in crews; that actual work in outer space is considerably different from ground-based training; that the skills obtained during trainings allows to minimize problems encountered; that spaceflight changes people’s mindset; and that people feel global social and environmental problems of the Earth more deeply.

Microgravity Modulates Effects of Chemotherapeutic Drugs on Cancer Cell Migration.

Microgravity or the condition of apparent weightlessness causes bone, muscular and immune system dysfunctions in astronauts following spaceflights. These organ and system-level dysfunctions correlate with changes induced at the single cell level both by simulated microgravity on earth as well as microgravity conditions in outer space (as in the international space station). Reported changes in single bone cells, muscle cells and white blood cells include structural/morphological abnormalities, changes in gene expression, protein expression, metabolic pathways and signaling pathways, suggesting that cells mount some response or adjustment to microgravity. However, the implications of such adjustments on many cellular functions and responses are not clear largely because the primary mechanism of gravity sensing in animal cells is unknown. Here, we used a rotary cell culture system developed by NASA to subject leukemic and erythroleukemic cancer cells to microgravity for 48 h and then quantified their innate immune response to common anti-cancer drugs using biophysical parameters and our recently developed quantum-dot-based fluorescence spectroscopy. We found that leukemic cancer cells treated with daunorubicin show increased chemotactic migration (p < 0.01) following simulated microgravity (µg) compared to normal gravity on earth (1 g). However, cells treated with doxorubicin showed enhanced migration both in 1 g and following µg. Our results show that microgravity modulates cancer cell response to chemotherapy in a drug-dependent manner. These results suggest using simulated microgravity as an immunomodulatory tool for the development of new immunotherapies for both space and terrestrial medicine.

Experimental demonstration of dynamic thermal regulation using vanadium dioxide thin films

We present an experimental demonstration of passive, dynamic thermal regulation in a solid-state system with temperature-dependent thermal emissivity switching. We achieve this effect using a multilayered device, comprised of a vanadium dioxide (VO2) thin film on a silicon substrate with a gold back reflector. We experimentally characterize the optical properties of the VO2 film and use the results to optimize device design. Using a calibrated, transient calorimetry experiment we directly measure the temperature fluctuations arising from a time-varying heat load. Under laboratory conditions, we find that the device regulates temperature better than a constant emissivity sample. We use the experimental results to validate our thermal model, which can be used to predict device performance under the conditions of outer space. In this limit, thermal fluctuations are halved with reference to a constant-emissivity sample.