Concept Of Public Goods Research Articles

DIŞSALLIK VE COVİD 19 AŞISININ OPTİMUM ÜRETİM SORUNU

The COVID 19 pandemic, a new type of coronavirus, started about a year and a half ago. The rapidly developing COVID-19 pandemic has not only put many countries in the world into a health crisis; but also increasingly brought along economic and social crises. According to economic theory, the optimum production level of goods that emit positive externalities under free market conditions remains below the socially desirable amount. Since externality requires consideration of societal benefits and costs rather than private benefits and private costs, the state should be a regulator in the market. The COVID 19 vaccine is heavily subsidized and consumption expenditures are insufficient and covered by the public. Despite this, a proposal to waive the intellectual property right was put forward to ensure social immunity as soon as possible by increasing the rate of vaccination at the global level; however, no consensus has been reached. In this study, the lack of COVID 19 vaccine supply and how to remove the restrictions on this issue are discussed. In the first chapter, the concept of public goods is explained in detail. The subject of the second part is the intervention of the state in the production of externalities and goods that create externalities. In the third and last part, the inadequacy of the COVID 19 vaccine supply and the measures to be taken to increase the supply is discussed.

The public good of higher education: a lexical-based comparison of the Chinese and Anglo-American approaches

ABSTRACT The idea of the public good of higher education is closely related to the political, social and educational cultures in which higher education is embedded. It varies across contexts. However, widely used notions of the ‘public’ aspects of higher education, including the concepts of economic public goods and private goods, conventionally assume Anglo-American state/society/university assemblages. Anglo-American (and more generally, Western) discourses and terms are dominant in scholarship on public policy and higher education. This creates obstacles and lacunae in comparative studies, and employing solely Anglo-American notions can be especially problematic in non-Anglo-American contexts. This paper attempts to move beyond the conventional approach by conducting a lexical-based comparison of the Chinese and Anglo-American approaches to the public aspects of higher education. It identifies and explores key concepts of the public good of higher education in both the Chinese and English languages, establishing similarities and differences. The comparison contributes to a more balanced understanding of the public roles of higher education, illuminates new aspects of ‘public’, and may facilitate mutual understanding between scholars and between the Chinese and Anglo-American higher education systems.

The state and energy security in the world and Europe as a public good

The article proposes an extended approach to the concept of public goods, when energy security is seen as a variety of them in conjunction with the state of the environment, and in the EU with the desire to reduce dependence on the key supplier of fossil fuels — Russia. In this context, energy security as a public good is linked with the development of clean energy, primarily with the transition to energy production from renewable sources. The role of state policy, state-owned enterprises as traditional strategic actors in the energy sector, as well as public—private partnerships at various levels — from local to global, is emphasized. Particular attention is paid to the interstate cross-border cooperation. In the context of the energy transition to renewable energy, the relevance of energy security is increasing, taking into account the costs of renewable energy sources and fossil fuels, in particular, natural gas. The conclusion is made about the importance of the contribution of states in supporting technological and socio-economic changes and international coordination in the field of energy security.

The international legal regime of outer space between Res Communis and Res Nullius

The publication is devoted to the issue of the international legal regime of outer space. The author attempts to determine the optimal model of international legal regulation for relations regarding the utilization of outer space and its resources. The basic international legal regimes applied to areas outside the exclusive national jurisdiction are studied. The main attention is paid to the regimes of res nullius, res communis, and the principle of the common heritage of mankind. The current international legal regulation of outer space exploration and utilization activities is analyzed through the prism of these regimes, as well as in the context of the category of global commons, which often includes outer space. It is emphasized that the mentioned category, although widely used in modern scientific legal discourse, is not clearly defined. Given that the concept of public goods has received a special development in economic theory, it is proposed to take into account the economic properties of such goods in developing regimes for their legal regulation. The peculiarities and complexity of outer space utilization relations as an object of legal regulation are identified. In this regard, a comprehensive and complex international legal regime that combines elements of res nullius, res communis, and the common heritage of mankind in relation to the objects of outer space with different natural and, consequently, economic properties should be elaborated. In addition, the latest trends in national and international law-making related to the formation of a legal regime for the extraction of celestial bodies resources and the commercialization of these activities are analyzed. Their influence on the international legal regime of outer space and tendencies of its future evolution is determined. The importance of a balanced national approach to a new legal regulation of space resources commercial development is emphasized.

Community action on natural flood management and the governance of acatchment‐basedapproach in theUK

AbstractThere is increasing interest in natural flood management (NFM) and the delivery of public environmental goods. Yet the implementation of NFM can be ad‐hoc and is regionally diverse. Communities often play a role in NFM and thus we assess NFM governance in the UK and communities' position within it. We develop a theoretical framework using the concepts of public goods, social capital, collective action and polycentrism and use it to examine the governance of the design and implementation of NFM in Pickering and Calderdale in Yorkshire, to contribute to a debate on how NFM should be managed, by whom, and under what governance arrangements. Drawing on stakeholder interviews, we find that the participation of community flood groups (CFGs) in NFM improved community access to strategic conversations on flood risk management (FRM). In turn CFGs raised the public profile of NFM, enabled the deployment of NFM measures, and helped to generate the evidence base on them. We conclude that there is a need for a polycentric communityandcatchment‐based approach to better coordinate NFM governance across and between scales, to support community access and contribution to flood risk strategy, and to foster sustainable flood risk management.

“It’s Humanity, Stupid!”: Values and the Definition of Public Goods

: The COVID-19 pandemic represents a major threat to the economy and an opportunity for transformation. This article suggests that the importance of the human role of the economy is now unusually palpable, and calls into question the divisions and inequalities across spatial and institutional specialization. We propose a new category of “public good” to account for the importance of political participation in the design of human institutions, to refer to both recognition and security. Rather than simply the opposite of private goods, the concept of public goods can incorporate human capacity and public agency. Whereas typical economic categories are presumably “technical,” without relationship to humans, these new proposed categories highlight the importance of humans, and humanity, as the primary focus of economic “performance,” not only in productivity and efficiency but also in quality of life and work.

Cybersecurity Governance – international law as policy driver?

Governance issues in the cybersecurity context have so far not become a key discussion topic, probably due to the fact that the existing legal instruments of global organizations do not play an important role in reality. This contribution pleads for a change of the perspective: As new regulatory models, alternative normative standards such as the concept of public goods, the concept of shared spaces and the concept of State responsibility should be made fruitful. These concepts appear to be suitable for giving guidelines at hand that support the improvement of the cybersecurity environment.<br/>The Internet as the most important global “infrastructure” is an ecosystem in which international law, with all its perplexities, should exercise a relevant function, particularly in view of the threats to which cybersecurity is exposed. Yet the current approach of politicians, scholars and practitioners shows a pertaining reluctance to embrace the challenges posed by cyberattacks to the most important international electronic network. An effective and coherent application of international legal concepts could support the efforts of realizing a higher level of Internet integrity.

Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area public goods supply governance research based on data mining algorithms

Building the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area is conducive to promoting the high economic integration of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao, building a new open economic system, and carrying out dual exploration of politics and economy, which is of great strategic significance. Public governance is not only a substitute for the traditional public administration paradigm, but also a product of interdisciplinary research and multidisciplinary development of social science. Its greatest feature is that it is a transcendence of traditional government domination theory. Close integration of economic decentralization and vertical political management system is the core connotation of Chinese-style decentralization. In terms of fiscal system, China is among the countries with the highest degree of decentralization in the world. Starting from the concept of public goods and based on data mining algorithm, this paper expounds the basic theory of public goods supply mode and the factors affecting the supply of public goods. On the basis of clear theory, this paper probes into the characteristics and existing problems of the traditional supply mode of public goods in China, which has positive significance for improving the quantity and quality of the supply of public goods in Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area.

Pandemic Politics within a System of Entangled Political Economy

Pandemic Politics within a System of Entangled Political Economy

A Study on Waqf as a Public System of Islam

The Islamic Community (Ummah), where the religious practice of Islam can be actualized, occupies a central position in Islamic faith. Muslims have paid much attention to publicity and public welfare to make their community sustainable. The emergence and development of ma&#7779;la&#7717;a (public interest) in u&#7779;&#363;l al-fiqh (Islamic legal theory) shows the deep concern of Muslims about publicity. The fact that ma&#7779;la&#7717;a came to be regarded as the final purpose of Shar&#299;&#703;ah in Ab&#363; &#7716;&#257;mid al-Ghaz&#257;l&#299;’s legal theory means that the interpretation of law was flexible. The concept of public goods can be found in &#7717;ad&#299;th. Especially land and water have been treated as important public goods in Islamic legal thought. The development of &#7717;uq&#363;q al-irtif&#257;q (the rights of easements) has supported the publicity of these goods. The legal concern about publicity in Islam was institutionalized as charitable endowments of Islam(waqfs). The waqf system is an excellent public system that regulates common goods. Its legal foundation is, however, surprisingly very weak. &#7716;ad&#299;th is the most important source of law for waqfs, and there is no ground in the Qur&#702;&#257;n as their primary source of law. It shows that waqfs are the result of active interpretation of law in favor of public interests.

AGRICULTURAL LAND IN THE CONTEXT OF THE THEORY OF PUBLIC GOODS – CRITICAL ANALYSIS

The main purpose of this article is to present a critical point of view towards the application of the public goods concept to land and agriculture. The basic legal regulations forming the agricultural system in Poland and the assessment of the legitimacy of state interventions on the land market in the light of the theory of the Austrian school of economics are discussed. According to the criteria used in the theory of public goods, agricultural land is a typical private good. On the other hand, the issue of goods integrally connected with land such as agricultural landscape and quality of the natural environment is debatable. The following arguments are against the state intervention: the lack of the possibility to objectively identify social needs, the political and redistributive nature of state intervention, the existence of market mechanisms for financing public goods.

A Social‐Ecological Systems Approach to Enhance Sustainable Farming and Forestry in the EU

SummaryThe two concepts of public goods and ecosystem services are often used to describe the same welfare benefits potentially generated by agriculture and forestry, but they originate from different perspectives and each offer only partial analysis of these relationships. A more holistic approach – Social‐Ecological Systems (SES) – has been adapted and applied in new research to understand more fully how the relationships can best be characterised, and beneficial change promoted, through policy reforms and practical action. An important and novel part of the description of a SES, as developed under the PEGASUS project, is the assessment of its ‘valorisation cascade’. Through the mapping and consideration of assets, actors, interactions, drivers and the nature of the valorisation cascade in 34 diverse case studies, the project highlighted the importance of multi‐actor approaches and social processes to foster beneficial change. These include collective action, co‐learning and trust between actors, promoting experimentation and innovation, developing public and/or consumer awareness and identifying new valorisation options, including via commercial supply chains and enhanced community involvement.

Properties of Information & the Legal Implications of Same

This paper reviews the literature related to the properties of information and legal implications of same, making three observations:First, scholars have extended a public good model of information to an ever-increasing number of fields where law and information intersect. An incomplete list includes intellectual property, securities regulation, contract theory, consumer protection, communications, and the study of free speech. Second, scholars have sharply questioned whether, in practice, information actually has the characteristics of a public good. In particular, the claim that information is intrinsically impossible to exclude non-payers from has no clear basis, a fact that potentially undermines theoretical support for some forms of government intervention. A closer look suggests that context, subject matter, and industry structure tends to yield great variation in how much intervention really is required to ensure adequate production or dissemination. This tends to support the existence of dynamic legal regimes attuned to differences in subject matter or perhaps industry structure. Third, the review questions if the public good concept, while well-established, ought really be the exclusive focus of the economic and legal understanding of information. The article closes by considering other, less investigated, but potentially important, properties of information that have not received as much scholarly attention.

Emerging Entrepreneurial Universities in University Reforms: The moderating role of personalities and the social/economic environment

University education, research and other services are increasingly becoming private goods as opposed to the traditional public goods concept. This trend is a highly debated process, and its consequences for universities are unquestionable. One of the consequences may be the diffusion of entrepreneurship in the higher education sector. The aim of the present paper is to highlight some of the characteristics of this process. Starting with the classics of entrepreneurship literature, Schumpeter defined the entrepreneur as somebody who goes against the stream. A new combination of production factors is the soul of entrepreneurship, and of any changes such as university reforms. Earlier research by Clark shed light on the environment of emerging entrepreneurial universities, which happened to be mainly new, relatively small universities. He found five indicators that are components of entrepreneurial universities. Taking this concept as a point of departure, we extended it in two directions. First, we go back to the economics literature and collect several other indicators/statements about entrepreneurship that are also worth considering in higher education. Second, we present a number of successful entrepreneurial cases of large top universities, looking for other indicators. Summarising these indicators in a table, two reforms of the Corvinus University of Budapest and its predecessors are discussed. Both of the reform processes lasted about five years, and there was a gap of approximately 20 years between the two processes. We would expect this to be successful, as a university needs to be reformed every 20 years, but this was not the case. Wecome to the surprising conclusion that, at least in case of the Corvinus University of Budapest, the two reforms in the socialist period were more entrepreneurial than the reforms we are experiencing now in a market economy environment. The explanation for this situation is twofold: the general socioeconomic environment is not really supportive of reform initiatives, and there is a lack of charismatic leadership.

Revisiting the Concept of Common Pool Resources: Beyond Ostrom

IntroductionEnvironmental problems are often compared to tragedy of the (Hardin 1968). This perspective has been expanded in the 50 years since Hardin cited shared pastures as an example of the commons. He was alarmed that if access to pasture were unregulated, the pasture would be over-exploited through each individual's intention of maximizing his or her own gains by putting more livestock out to graze; consequently, the shared pasture would go into ruin. According to Hardin, any with a limited carrying capacity that is always open to all, in which those who pursue rational economic activities utilize them to maximize their own gains, inevitably becomes devastated. The individuals' freedom to pursue their own egocentric interests leads to the tragedy of the commons. To prevent this situation, Hardin argued, mutual coercion mutually agreed upon is required in order to constrain each individual's freedom. Thus, the establishment of private property rights or the intervention and expansion of centralized state power over the has been proposed as a way to prevent the tragedy of the (Hardin 1968, 1994, 1998; Ostrom 2003).This argument regarding tragedy of the has been cited widely beyond the boundary of natural science including in ecological anthropology, demography, law, politics, ethics, geography, psychology, sociology, and public administration; the frequency of citation has increased (Burger and Gochfeld 1998). On the one hand, studies supporting Hardin's argument have been carried out by presenting cases about overexploitation of resources, destruction of habitats, and extinction of species resulting from population growth. On the other hand, some studies have criticized this approach, sought cases of successful management of a commons, and tried to find social conditions and mechanisms for it. The work of Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons opened the possibility of sustainable management of common pool resources (CPRs) through local people's autonomous institutions, rather than through privatization or state control.Is Ostrom's understanding of the sufficient and proper? If the design principles Ostrom suggested are maintained, do CPRs remain as they are? What characteristics make CPRs able to be managed sustainably? Is it because of the nature of the resources or due to other causes? If Ostrom's approach is taken, can natural resources be kept healthy as CPRs? While this paper begins with those questions, it seeks to figure out what CPR management is and explores how discussion about CPRs contributes to the reduction of environmental problems and achievement of sustainable conditions. Section 2 describes the achievements of and limits to Ostrom's approach, while comparing Ostrom's understanding of CPRs with previous scholars. Section 3 re-defines the concept of CPRs based on sociological imagination. Section 4 applies the redefined concept of CPRs, with increased focus on social aspects, to real on-going problems with CPRs. Finally, section 5 summarizes and concludes this study.Elinor Ostroms Understanding of CPRsOstrom was awarded the Nobel Prize for her study of CPRs because CPRs are at the center of an essential dispute in economics concerning the role of the market. The concept of CPRs was developed from the concept of public goods, which was conceptualized by Paul A. Samuelson in order to criticize market fundamentalism and libertarianism. Therefore, studies on CPRs incorporated critiques of market fundamentalism and libertarianism from the beginning.1) Discussions related to CPRs before Ostrom's studyBoth natural resources, such as land, water, sunshine, and air, and man-made facilities, including reservoirs and waterways, that are utilized together by a great number of people were traditionally called commons These have been commodified and privatized through the development of capitalism. …

A genealogy of the concept of merit wants

ABSTRACTThis paper proposes a genealogy of the concept of merit wants coined by Richard A. Musgrave in his Theory of Public Finance (1959). The concept of merit wants can only be understood as a complement to the concept of public goods. I suggest that Musgrave invented the concept to apprehend some considerations that have been left out in the process of consolidation of the concept of public good. The narrow definition of the latter could not account for important state responsibilities that have been asserted by many economists.I attempt to reconstruct Musgrave's intellectual background. First, I select examples of arguments for state intervention from authors influential in Musgrave's formative period (J.S. Mill, H. Sidgwick, E. Sax, H. Ritschl, G. Cassel, A. Wagner). Second, I argue that the invention of the concept in the 1950s reflected contemporary concerns for redistributive policies. I show that critics of the New Welfare approach (G. Colm, A. Hansen, W. Heller, H. Bowen) have held similar views, which were also in line with the liberal policy spirit of the post-war era in the United States.

Customary International Law and Public Goods

The paper examines the potential of customary international law to protect global public goods. In particular, it focuses on the question whether customary law can contribute to the mitigation of climate change. The analysis proceeds in the three steps. First, it will have a closer look at the concept of public goods and common pool resources in economic theory and experimental economics. On this basis, the second section examines the formation of customary international law. The analysis shows that sustaining cooperation in multilateral settings through customary law is difficult. With regard to the mitigation of climate change, it is unlikely that states will coordinate on an equilibrium that will lead to a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The section then examines two further ways of identifying customary international law through moral interpretation and judicial lawmaking. However, the potential of these two avenues to protect global public goods effectively is rather limited. The final section analyzes the protection of global public goods through the initially unilateral extension of authority. One problem of global public goods is that states have shared authority over them. A solution might be to divide authority by extending the jurisdiction of the nation states. I will draw from an example concerning the protection of common pool resources, the protection of fish stocks, and analyze whether this example contains any lessons for the mitigation of climate change.

The concept of public goods, the state, and higher education finance: a view from the BRICs

Because higher education serves both public and private interests, the way it is conceived and financed is contested politically, appearing in different forms in different societies. What is public and private in education is a political–social construct, subject to various political forces, primarily interpreted through the prism of the state. Mediated through the state, this construct can change over time as the economic and social context of higher education changes. In this paper, we analyze through the state’s financing of higher education how it changes as a public/private good and the forces that impinge on states to influence such changes. To illustrate our arguments, we discuss trends in higher education financing in the BRIC countries—Brazil, Russia, India, and China. We show that in addition to increased privatization of higher education financing, BRIC states are increasingly differentiating the financing of elite and non-elite institutions.

Kamu malları: piyasa başarısızlığı mı teorilerin başarısızlığı mı?

Public goods are generally perceived as market failure and consequently are thought to be subject to public intervention. However, when mainstream theories are closely examined, one can see that there is no consensus on the characteristics of public goods that would justify public provision, hence there are many objections to the public provision of such goods. The main thesis of this study is that the concept of public goods is inadequate to describe the publicness of goods, and corresponding theories also fail to clearly explain even what they themselves theoretically devised. To investigate this thesis, it is examined whether public goods theory has a satisfactory explanation about publicness of goods as well as optimal provision, collective decision making processes and market failure. These are comparatively studied by the views of main economic schools of thought that contribute to the theory of public goods - traditional neoclassical economics, public choice school and new institutionalist economics. Finally, the basis common to all these theories are critically evaluated.

The Concept of Public Goods, the State, and Higher Education Finance: A View from the Brics

Because higher education serves both public and private interests, the way it is conceived and financed is contested politically, appearing in different forms in different societies. What is public and private in education is a political-social construct, subject to various political forces, primarily interpreted through the prism of the state. Mediated through the state, this construct can change over time as the economic and social context of higher education changes. In this paper, we analyze through the state’s financing of higher education how it changes as a public/private good and the forces that impinge on states to influence such changes. To illustrate our arguments, we discuss trends in higher education financing in the BRIC countries — Brazil, Russia, India, and China. We show that in addition to increased privatization of higher education financing, BRIC states are increasingly differentiating the financing of elite and non-elite institutions.