Radon Concentration Research Articles

Radon and carbon dioxide emissions from the surface rupture zone produced by the 1920 Haiyuan M8.5 earthquake in Northwest China

A M8.5 earthquake struck the Haiyuan area in 1920 and resulted in a 240-km long surface rupture zone along the Haiyuan fault (HYF). In this study, to determine the spatial relationship between soil gases and fault activity on a regional scale, radon (Rn) and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations in soil gas were measured in situ with a grid spacing of 5 ∼ 10 km along the Haiyuan surface rupture zone (HYSRZ). Ordinary Kriging (OK) and Inverse Distance Weight (IDW) interpolation were used to investigate spatial variations in Rn and CO2 concentrations. Synchronous soil gas anomalies were identified in southern Haiyuan County and at the southern end of the HYSRZ, and were correlated with higher slip rate, larger deformation, and larger degree rupture size than other segments. Moreover, soil gas anomalies were spatially highly coupled with seismically active zones and low b value areas, suggesting that the permeability and porosity of gas emissions are enhanced by higher stress. Two seismic velocity profiles across the gas anomaly area confirmed that low-velocity bodies exist at 0 ∼ 10 km below the surface, as revealed by magnetotelluric (MT) sounding results, indicating that gas emissions are associated with the migration of deep fluids. Our results provide new insight into the source of fluids in the HYSRZ and offer support for the design of a continuous geochemical measurement network in this area.

Indoor Radon Measurement in Buildings of A.O.R.N Cardarelli, the Largest Hospital of National Relevance in Southern Italy

: Indoor radon concentrations constitute a major source of exposure to ionizing radiation for humans. It has been estimated that radon contributes about 10% of deaths from lung cancer in the USA and Europe. In Italy, current legislation establishes that the concentration of radon must be monitored in all workplaces located in a basement and on the ground floor. In this study, the indoor radon concentration of 20 multi-floor buildings on the Cardarelli Hospital was measured during two consecutive semesters. The survey was carried out with CR-39 solid-state nuclear track detectors (SSNTDs). Radon concentrations were found to range from 4 Bq/m3 to 424 Bq/m3, with a median of 24 Bq/m3. The dependence of the radon concentrations on the measurement floor and the room-to-room spatial variation was also analyzed.

Local weather phenomenon Galerna influences daily radon concentrations in northern Iberian Peninsula

One of the main factors that affect urban air quality is meteorology. The objective of this study is to understand and characterise the influence that “Galerna” (GL) (an abrupt westerly change over the northern coast of Spain) has on the daily variability of the air quality over Bilbao city (northern Spain). A total of 46 one-day periods from 2009 to 2019 during which GL have been analysed. Radon observations at the Bilbao city radiological station were used because radon is a suitable atmospheric tracer by which to assess and characterise air quality dynamics. The cluster analysis of these periods revealed that increases in radon concentrations, mainly in the afternoon, are associated with the occurrence of GL, but that, this increase in the daily variability of radon concentrations in Bilbao is not reflected in all these GL periods. This variability in the impact of the GL scenario on radon concentrations is associated with the location of Bilbao: along the Nervion valley and 16 km from the coast. The analysis of three GL periods using 10-min surface meteorological and radon data showed an anomalous increase in radon with the arrival of maritime winds, which is associated with the process of a progressive accumulation of radon concentrations over the coastal area in the previous days, and the displacement of these air masses inland owing to the development of the GL event. Our results consequently identify the impact of GL on urban air quality in the afternoon, along with the fact that the complex layout of this coastal area, with the presence of valleys and mountains, favours the formation of reservoir layers above the coastal and valley areas, thus influencing on daily variability of air pollution concentrations. These increases in radon concentrations do not present a significant impact on human health.

Efficacy of zeolites in radon adsorption: state of the art and development of an optimized approach

ABSTRACT Radon is a radioactive noble gas omnipresent in the environment, being part of the 238U and 232Th decay chains present in the Earth's crust. The gas can easily leak through the ground but also be present in natural construction materials and migrate into indoor places where it can be a carcinogen when inhaled. Studying the content and removal of indoor radon is crucial for the evaluation and mitigation of its radiological risks to public health. For more than 100 years, the removal by adsorption of the radon has been performed on activated charcoal. There is little progress in the field of radon adsorption at ambient conditions; the main progress is in the use of zeolite materials, having well-defined three-dimensional porous structures and radiation resistance. This study concerns a report on the state of the art of the application of zeolites in radon adsorption. Furthermore, an optimized approach for measuring the radon content in indoor environments and, consequently, its removal has been proposed. Adsorption systems based on zeolites have the potential to replace activated charcoal as a material of choice, allowing to facilitate the development of simple and compact radon adsorption systems.

Assessment of soil moisture on radon levels, radon exhalation, natural radioactivity, and radiological risks in offices and laboratories in GAEC

This study investigates the influence of moisture on soil radon exhalation, natural radioactivity in soil, and indoor radon concentrations in offices and laboratories at the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC) and their associated radiological risks to workers. Radon exhalation rates were determined using the Sealed Can method. CR-39 SSNTD detectors were used to measure indoor radon concentrations. Gamma spectroscopy using HpGe detector was used to determine the activity concentrations of U-238, Ra-226, Th-232, and K-40 in the soil samples. The results showed mean concentrations of 14.3 ± 2.0 Bq/kg (CI 95%: 10.0–18.0) for U-238, 145.0 ± 10.0 Bq/kg (CI 95%:123.0–167.0) for K-40, 31.5 ± 6.0 Bq/kg (CI 95%: 24.0–39.0) for Th-232, and 15.6 ± 2.0 Bq/kg (CI 95%:14.0–29.0) for Ra-226. The results showed mean surface and mass exhalation rates of 6.9 ± 2.3 × 10−4 Bq/m2/h1 (CI 95%: 5.7 × 10−4 –12.6 × 10−4) and 2.4 ± 0.4 (CI 95%: 1.9–4.2) nBq/kg1/h1 respectively. The findings revealed mean indoor radon concentrations of 93.0 ± 10.0 Bq/m3 (CI 95%: 88.0–98.0), 111.0 ± 12.0 Bq/m3 (CI 95%: 102.0–119.0) and 145.0 ± 13.0 Bq/m3 (CI 95%: 135.0–155.0) in the offices, laboratories, and basements respectively, with laboratories and basements exceeding the WHO reference level of 100 Bq/m3. A strong inverse relationship between moisture levels and exhalation rates (r = −0.8) was observed, leading to a negative correlation (r = −0.3). Between the moisture levels and indoor radon levels. The research findings indicated a mean annual effective dose of 0.6 mSv/yr. (CI 95%: 0.5–0.6) to the workers, which is well below occupational and public dose limits. The lung cancer cases of workers were computed which ranged from 0.9 × 10−8 to 1.2 × 10−8 cases per million people per year, which is less than the limit range of 170–230 per million people per year recommended by ICRP but remaining with safe radiological limits for workers. This study identified moderate radon exposure risks at the GAEC, exceeding the WHO recommendation. The correlation and trend analysis demonstrate strong relationships between moisture, exhalation rates, radium, and indoor radon.

Assessment of radon in traditional building materials using polymeric nuclear track detector

Natural uranium deposits decay into radon gas, a radioactive element that is produced spontaneously. It is a radioactive gas that adversely affects the human population because it can be ingested and inhaled internally, contaminating living tissue, especially DNA, through the ionizing process that increases free radical bodies and increases the risk of cancer. The present study is carried out to determine the radon concentration for some traditional building materials in Egypt by using the nuclear track detector (CR-39). The values of radon concentrations measured by CR-39 ranged from 40.5 ± 3 to 593.2 ± 13 with an average value of 180 ± 6 (Bqm−3). The average values of both surface and mass exhalation rates are 6.3E-04 (Bqm−2h−1) and 7.01E-06 (Bqkg−1h−1) respectively. Pearson’s correlation analysis shows a direct and great correlation between 222Rn, and all variables indexed particularly the annual effective dose with significance at 0.01. The current study helps to create baseline data to assess any anomalies in the level of background radioactivity at Egyptian houses. In addition to applying radiation protection strategies for public and occupational regarding the permissible and recommendation limits by ICRP, and IAEA.

Assessment of environmental radioactivity concentration and effective dose rates from radon gas exposure from water samples in Gezira State, Sudan

A study was conducted in Gezira State, Sudan, to estimate the concentration of radon and the annual effective dose rate in water samples based on inhalation, ingestion, and age group. The study collected 26 samples from different locations. The results showed that the mean concentration of radon was 7.68 ± 1.07 Bq.l−1, and the mean effective dose rate of radon released from water to indoor air was 19.17 ± 2.68 μSv.y−1. The average effective dose rates calculated from ingestion, inhalation, and the total annual effective dose rate were 18.81 ± 2.63, 19.34 ± 2.71, and 38.15 ± 5.34 μSv.y−1, respectively. The annual effective dose rates for infants, children, and adults were calculated to have mean values of 80.60 ± 11.27, 53.73 ± 7.51, and 38.38 ± 5.37 μSv.y−1, respectively. The study found that 23.1% of the samples exceeded the maximum contamination level, while 76.9% were below the reference levels set by the USEPA, WHO, and EU. Despite the increase in radiation dose with age and consumption rates, the radiation dose from water was lower than the recommended limits set by UNSCEAR and WHO. Additionally, the bronchial epithelium received twice the radiation dose compared to the stomach walls.

Statistical assessment of natural radioactivity, radon activity, and associated radiological exposure due to artisanal mining in Atiwa West district of the Eastern region, Ghana

The activity concentration of natural radionuclides, radon activity concentration, mass and area exhalation rates have been studied in soils from gold mining communities in Atiwa West district. The natural radionuclides were determined by gamma ray spectrometry method while radon concentrations were measured using CR-39 detectors. The mean activity concentrations were found to be 26.9 ± 1.7 Bq/kg, 57.5 ± 3.6 Bq/kg, 237.5 ± 17.6 Bq/kg and 560.0 ± 54 Bq/m3 for Ra-226, Th-232, K-40 and Rn-222 respectively. The evaluated mass exhalation rates ranged from 2.8 ± 0.3 to 6.5 ± 0.7 × 10−5 Bq/kg/h while the area exhalation rates were from 0.8 ± 0.09 to 2.0 ± 0.21 × 10−3 Bq/m2/h. Some mining and farming areas recorded high exhalation rates indicating that the use of soils as building materials from such areas could pose a level of radiation hazard to the population. The evaluated radiological risks were below reference levels. A good linear correlation was observed between Ra-226 and Rn-222 activity concentrations and in the investigated soils. The Pearson correlation coefficient, cluster analysis and principal component analysis were used to study the relationship between the determined parameters of the study.

Revealing the ongoing speleogenetic processes in an underwater cave through the application of natural radionuclides and stable isotopes: case study from the hypogene Buda Thermal Karst

The underwater Molnár János Cave in the hypogene Buda Thermal Karst system (Budapest, Hungary) provides a unique site to study the effects of flowing groundwater and the interplay of fluids of different origin. The aim of the present study is to characterize the groundwater in different parts of the cave with temporal resolution, hence describe the recent speleogenetic processes within the cave. This study uses natural radioisotopes (uranium, radium, and radon) besides stable isotope ratios of oxygen and hydrogen to identify the different fluid components. The results show that the majority of the cave is situated in the flow path of the intermediate flow system, discharging in the Boltív Spring. Thus, the dominant recent speleogenetic processes are connected to this lukewarm groundwater. In contrast to previous views, typical hypogene processes, such as mixing corrosion involving thermal waters, are restricted to a narrower area in the cave, to the contact zone of lukewarm waters and the warmer upper water layer around the largest partially air-filled chamber (Kessler Hall). The warmer water layer is the result of free convection. In the air-filled chambers condensation-corrosion might be active. However, its effect is limited to the largest room (Kessler Hall), as it is open to surface conditions. More active mixing corrosion probably occurs deeper, in the area of the Northeastern Margin Fault, which is indicated by the radon content in the Boltív Spring. Regarding the temporal processes, the main driving force can be linked to the water level fluctuations of the Danube, which regulates the discharge of the regional flow-related thermal water upwelling, thus affecting the mixing ratio of the lukewarm waters transported by the intermediate flow systems and the thermal waters, representing the regional flow path, including basinal components.

Annual Effective Dose Estimation from Radon Concentration in Commonly Consumed Bottled Water in Northcentral Nigeria

Radon (222Rn), the heaviest among the noble gas in the periodic table of element, is radioactive nuclide that is naturally available in rocks, soil and water. In this study, a total of ten (10) brands of commonly consumed commercial bottled water in northcentral Nigeria were collected and assigned for their radon concentration using liquid scintillation counter (LSC). The highest radon (222Rn) concentration of 0.073 Bq/l was recorded in C Way bottled water while Mr. V bottled water recorded the lowest 222Rn concentration value of 0.016 Bq/l. These values were below the parametric reference level of 11.1 Bq/l set by United State of America Environmental Protection Agency and lower than the permissible limit of 100 Bq/l by World Health Organization (WHO) and European Union. Computed total annual effective dose due to ingestion and inhalation of waterborne radon recorded the highest mean value of 0.187 μSv/y in C Way Bottled water and lowest value of 0.041 μSv/y in Mr. V bottled water. Mean total annual effective dose recorded for all the bottled water samples were found to be significantly lower than the safety limit of 0.1 mSv/y recommended by WHO. The likelihood of any radiation incidence among the public due to consumption of commercial bottled water is therefore negligible.

Effect of Seasonal Variation and Soil Parameters on Soil-Gas Radon Concentration in Ogbomoso, South Western Nigeria

Radon 222Rn, an inert natural radioactive gas, a daughter product in the 238U natural decay series, a source of alpha radiation. It accounts for about 55% of the total radiation from natural sources. Radon is known for its substantial variations in concentration due to both seasonal changes and variations in soil parameters. Soil, fractures in rocks and water are the main source of radon and they are the routes through which individual is exposed to it, in which this study is aimed at examining the effects of seasonal variation, soil parameters, on soil radon concentration. A total of hundred (100) in-situ soil radon measurements were carried out for both seasons (wet and dry) in Ogbomoso using an active electronic device RAD 7. Soil parameters were measured using a 4-in-1 digital metre. The obtained experimental data were subjected to a statistical tool (SPSS) Version 23, with statistical significance set at p < 0.01. The result showed that the effect of seasonal variation on soil-gas radon concentration was discovered to be maximum during the dry season with the radon concentration of 1900.01 Bq/m3 and minimum during the wet season with the radon concentration of 711.81 Bq/m3.The mean value of radon in soil-gas was found to be 553.48 Bq/m3 and 1366.34 Bq/m3 for wet and dry season respectively. Soil parameters considered in this work have notable influence on soil gas radon concentration in both seasons. Thus, providing valuable insight into the dynamics of radon migration in the soil. The results will help to develop effective mitigation strategies by policies makers and reducing the risk of radon related lung cancer in the study area.

Assessment of Indoor and Soil-Gas Radon Concentration of a Quarry Site in Eiyekorin, Kwara State

The toxic health effect of human exposure to radon gas which is radioactive in nature has attracted extensive research attention worldwide. Since direct experiments on the effect of earthquakes on radon release are difficult to conduct, a possible alternative is to use man-made explosions as an earthquake surrogate and investigate the corresponding effect on radon concentration. This study aims at investigating the soil-gas radon concentration in an active quarry site and areas outside the quarry, and the infiltration of the gas into the indoor environment was measured in order to access the occupational exposure risk. Soil gas radon concentration was taken at 30 random locations within the quarry and areas outside the quarry using RAD7, likewise 10 indoor radon gas in offices and homes were measured using an active radon detector manufactured by Durridge Incorporation in USA and comparative analysis of the difference between the two locations were done. The mean of the soil-gas radon concentration in the quarry site is 24968.84 ± 6913.204Bq/m3 while that of outside the quarry is 9664.67 ± 4992.86 Bq/m3. The result shows higher values of radon-gas concentration in the quarry site compared with area outside the quarry and when compared to the International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP) suggested value of radon concentration in soil and sediment, which is in the range of 0.4 to 40 KBqm-3, result shows that most location within the study area are higher than these limits. Also, the radon in air indoor and outdoor was taken at the offices located within the quarry and occupational exposure risk was carried out. The average of radon in air indoor and outdoor was found to be 31.12 Bqm–3 and 10.12 Bqm–3 respectively with higher values found indoor. However, the values are found to be below the recommended value of 300 Bq/m3 by ICRP publication for homes and workplaces.

Assessment of Radon Contamination in Drinking Water Sources Around Babban Tsauni Gold Mining Area, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria

ABSTRACT Radon, a naturally occurring radioactive gas, is produced through the disintegration of radionuclides like uranium, thorium, or radium in the earth's crust. In this study, the radon levels and the annual effective dose from drinking water sources were assessed in Babban Tsauni, Gwagwalada, Nigeria, where artisanal gold mining is taking place. Water samples were collected and analyzed for 222Rn using liquid scintillation counter (Tri-Carb-LSA1000). The highest radon activity concentration was found in Dobi with a value of 3.215 Bq/L, while the lowest was found in Tsauni 7; 0.025 Bq/L. Both values were significantly below the maximum contamination level of 11.1 Bq/L and the world average value of 10 Bq/L, as established by USEPA and WHO respectively. The annual effective dose from ingesting radon was also below the permissible limit of 1 mSv/y for all age groups, the values for adult, children and infant ranged in mSv/y from 5.59E-07 to 2.35E-05, 8.39E-07 to 3.52E-05, 9.79E-07 to 4.11E-05 and 1.79E-07 to 2.55E-06, 2.68E-07 to 3.82E-06, 3.13E-07 to 4.46E-06 for ground and surface water sources respectively. This study concluded that the radon concentrations in the water sources remained within safe limits and that the anthropogenic activities of gold mining had no significant effect on the water sources.

Radon concentrations in the Groundwater of Kirkuk city /Iraq

Radon concentrations in the Groundwater of Kirkuk city /Iraq

Assessment of Indoor and Water Radon Concentrations in Esenyurt and Beylikdüzü Districts of Istanbul, Marmara Region, Turkey

The radon activity concentration measurements for indoor and tap water were studied in Esenyurt and Beylikdüzü districts of Istanbul Province, Turkey. The mean radon concentration value received from thirty-six passive radon detectors was obtained as 63.56 Bq/m3. The mean annual effective dose for indoor radon measurements is 1.60 mSv/y in this measurement period. The radon activity results of calculated tap water samples were under 0.8 Bq/L. The annual effective doses resulting from ingestion and inhalation were calculated to evaluate the health risk across various age groups. All radon measurement results, and the associated calculated data for ingestion and inhalation remained below the threshold values established by international organizations

Assessment of Radon Contamination in Drinking Water Sources Around Babban Tsauni Gold Mining Area, Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria

ABSTRACT Radon, a naturally occurring radioactive gas, is produced through the disintegration of radionuclides like uranium, thorium, or radium in the earth's crust. In this study, the radon levels and the annual effective dose from drinking water sources were assessed in Babban Tsauni, Gwagwalada, Nigeria, where artisanal gold mining is taking place. Water samples were collected and analyzed for 222Rn using liquid scintillation counter (Tri-Carb-LSA1000). The highest radon activity concentration was found in Dobi with a value of 3.215 Bq/L, while the lowest was found in Tsauni 7; 0.025 Bq/L. Both values were significantly below the maximum contamination level of 11.1 Bq/L and the world average value of 10 Bq/L, as established by USEPA and WHO respectively. The annual effective dose from ingesting radon was also below the permissible limit of 1 mSv/y for all age groups, the values for adult, children and infant ranged in mSv/y from 5.59E-07 to 2.35E-05, 8.39E-07 to 3.52E-05, 9.79E-07 to 4.11E-05 and 1.79E-07 to 2.55E-06, 2.68E-07 to 3.82E-06, 3.13E-07 to 4.46E-06 for ground and surface water sources respectively. This study concluded that the radon concentrations in the water sources remained within safe limits and that the anthropogenic activities of gold mining had no significant effect on the water sources.

Radiological Assessment of Background Radiation and it’s Associated Risk in Junior Secondary School Idu-Koro Abuja, Nigeria

The primary cause of natural background radiation exposure in the general public has been radon and its shortlived decay products in homes, which account for around 50% of the population's effective dose worldwide. Radon (222Rn) and its progeny inside building and environments have been recognized as a global issue and a substantial risk factor for lung cancer. In this research,Inspector alert nuclear radiation meter (manufactured by S.E international U.S.A SN:35440) with inbuilt Geiger-Muller tube was employed to determine the concentration of 222Rn in the eleven (11) investigated points at Junior Secondary School Idu-Koro Abuja, to calculate the tenants' effective dose from 222Rn and its progeny. The meter was held at the abdominal level (about 1 m above the ground surface). The dosimetric measurements were taken in count per minute (cpm) mode and the radon concentration range from to . Conversion was made from count rate to dose rate, absorb dose rate, annual dose rate and finally effective dose rate for comparison. The effective dose to the occupants was estimated ranging from to , with a mean of . The radon contents were establish to be lesser than the reference value from the international commission for radiological protection (ICRP) as the appropriate safety; hence it may not result to any health effect of lung cancer to the occupants and the members of public within the investigated areas.

Radon Concentration in Air and Evaluation of the Radiation Dose in Villages near Shizhuyuan, Southern Hunan, China

Radon is one of the important natural sources of radiation and pollutants. When radon and its progeny are inhaled by the human body, they can cause radiation damage to the respiratory system and can lead to lung cancer. Indoor and outdoor radon concentrations were measured in five villages near Shizhuyuan W-polymetallic deposit using a RAD7 detector; moreover, the corresponding radiation dose and lifetime risk probability were evaluated. The results show that the average value of indoor radon concentration was 216.6±121.1 Bq m−3, which is above the worldwide average indoor radon level of 40 Bq m−3, and the average outdoor value was 34.6±13.4 Bq m−3, which is higher than the worldwide outdoor average of 10 Bq m−3. A total of 42% of the dwellings investigated in our study had a higher radon level than the Chinese permissible indoor radon level of 200 Bq m−3. The total annual effective dose ranged from 5.21 mSv y−1 to 49.38 mSv y−1, with an average value of 14.63 mSv y−1, which is higher than the ICRP recommended value of 3–10 mSv y−1. This average total dose value corresponds to an average lifetime risk probability of 5.8% for residents in the whole study area.

Indoor radon monitoring in Zázrivá

Indoor radon survey in Zázrivá was conducted within the framework of the project “Multidisciplinary research of geophysical and structural parameters, and environmental impacts of faults of the Western Carpathians”. Monitoring was carried out in selected houses and kindergarten using RamaRn detectors. Annual average of indoor radon varied between 45 and 260 Bq/m3, with median of 90 Bq/m3. Seasonal variation with minimum in summer was observed in the majority of monitored rooms. Radon concentration higher than 200 Bq/m3 was measured only in rooms with direct contact with the subsoil. A possible relation between the position of a monitored building close to an assumed fault line and elevated indoor radon levels was not proven.

An Overview of the Measurements of Primordial Radionuclide Concentrations in Soil and Radon Concentrations in Water Samples

Radiation physics has significantly improved health science, revealing the impact of radioactive materials on humans. These contaminants damage soil and water, leading to health issues like stomach, lung, and leukemia. Radon, a byproduct, poses a significant threat to human health, particularly lung and stomach cancer. Identifying radioactive soil sites is crucial for assessing health concerns among agriculture and construction workers, as natural radionuclides can cause radiological damage. Monitoring these materials can help to assess exposure-related health risks. The goal of this review is to overview and consolidate the works executed between 2007 and 2024 in several countries, including Romania, Turkey, Jamaica, Nigeria, Jordan, Serbia, Spain, Saudi Arabia, Armenia, China, Brazil, Sudan, India, Syria, Iraq, Tunisia, Pakistan, Qatar, and Yemen. Articles commonly employ (HPGe), RAD-7, and CR-39 techniques to measure primordial radionuclides and radon levels. The latest analysis revealed that Nigeria has a significantly higher average radon measurement of 36.1 Bq/L in its drinking water, above the global benchmark threshold of 11.1 Bq/L. The article also, reviews primordial radionuclides in soil research articles in 10 nations. Serbia has the highest 226Ra and 40K soil Bq/kg, which exceeded standards of 32, and 420 Bq/kg of 226Ra and 40K, respectively, while Turkey and Jordan have the lowest values. India has the highest 232Th, and health and safety concerns are addressed. This review work shows that naturally occurring background radiation from radionuclides in soil and radon concentrations in water samples typically has a substantial health impact, posing a major radiation risk to the residents of certain areas. Consequently, our analysis showed that residents should avoid some areas due to radiological hazards. Finally, this review evaluates and elucidates the several factors that influence the elevated and reduced levels of radon in consumption water and the primordial radionuclides activity in soil samples in each country.