Comprehensive Vaccination Program Research Articles

The Impact Of Partial Substitution Of Date Palm Kernel Powder As An Alternative Energy Source For Grains In The Diet On The Productive Performance Of Broiler Chickens.

In this study, 160 unsexed day-old Cobb broiler chicks were utilized to investigate the impact of incorporating various levels of date palm kernel powder into broiler chicken diets on productive performance. The chicks were raised in a closed poultry barn in Ain Zara, Tripoli, Libya, from September 10, 2022, to October 23, 2022, using a floor-rearing system. The study comprised four different dietary treatments, in addition to a control treatment, with chicks randomly and replicatively distributed. Each treatment consisted of four replications, and each replication included ten chicks. Date palm kernel powder was added at levels of 0%, 3%, 5%, and 7% to the first (control), second, third, and fourth treatments, respectively, during the starter and grower phases. The experimental treatments were uniform in nitrogen (23%) and caloric content (3200 kcal/kg). A free-choice feeding system was implemented, providing feed and water to the chicks throughout the six-week study period, with temperature monitoring. The chicks were raised under consistent environmental conditions, including lighting, ventilation, bedding, labor, and a comprehensive therapeutic, preventive, and vaccination program throughout the experimental period. The study also encompassed evaluating average weight gain, feed consumption, feed conversion ratio, and mortality rate for 42-day-old birds. Results demonstrated a significant (P≤0.05) effect of adding date palm kernel powder to broiler chicken diets on weight gain and feed efficiency compared to the control treatment. Sequential addition of date palm kernel powder at levels of 3%, 5%, and 7% led to improvements in weight gain and feed efficiency. Additionally, higher levels of addition resulted in enhanced weight gain and feed efficiency, with the optimal weight gain observed at the 7% addition level, followed by the 5% addition level, and then the 3% addition level, in comparison to the control treatment (0%). Conversely, the best feed efficiency was recorded for the fourth (7%) and third (5%) treatments, respectively, compared to the control treatment (0%). No statistically significant differences were noted in feed consumption and mortality rate among all treatments, as mean values were similar. Based on the results, utilizing date palm kernel as an alternative energy source to grains could be significant, especially in regions where palm trees are cultivated, providing essential grains for human consumption. Keywords: Date kernel, productive performance, broiler, weight gain, feed efficiency.

The Role of Seasonal Influenza in Compounding the Outbreak of Infectious Diseases: A Critical Review

Infectious diseases continue to pose a persistent threat to public health globally. Amidst the array of factors contributing to the complexity of infectious disease outbreaks, the role of seasonal influenza stands out as a significant amplifier. Seasonal influenza, commonly known as the flu, not only inflicts its burden on communities but also plays a crucial role in compounding the spread and impact of other infectious diseases. This review delves into the various ways in which seasonal influenza contributes to the complexity of infectious disease outbreaks. The role of seasonal influenza in compounding the outbreak of infectious diseases is a multifaceted challenge that demands attention from public health authorities worldwide. Addressing this compounding effect requires a holistic approach that encompasses vaccination campaigns, strengthened healthcare infrastructure, and improved diagnostic capabilities. By understanding and mitigating the various ways in which seasonal influenza contributes to the complexity of infectious disease outbreaks, communities can enhance their resilience and responsiveness in the face of evolving public health threats. Recognizing and understanding these dynamics is essential for designing effective public health strategies. By implementing comprehensive vaccination programs, improving diagnostic capabilities, and enhancing overall preparedness, communities can better navigate the complexities of infectious disease outbreaks exacerbated by the presence of seasonal influenza.

Strategies to increase vaccine coverage in brazilian territory

The Brazilian National Immunization Program (PNI), created in 1973, is a comprehensive and successful vaccination program, providing vaccines free of charge to all citizens, regardless of age, income, or place of residence. It maintains a vaccination schedule aimed at achieving high immunization rates against various diseases. However, it faces challenges such as misinformation, anti-vaccine movements, distrust in health authorities, difficulties in access, and interruptions in vaccine distribution, which have led to a decline in vaccination rates. To reverse this trend, several strategies can be adopted, adapted to the local context. This includes knowledge of the territory, vaccination campaigns, vaccination units, home visits and active patient outreach, Health Education in the school environment, public-private partnerships, effective communication, electronic records, ongoing education for healthcare professionals, identification of high-risk groups, and awareness campaigns. These strategies should be implemented in coordination, taking into account the characteristics of each territory. Collaboration between the government, healthcare professionals, schools, and the community is essential to ensure the protection of the population against infectious diseases. Strengthening vaccination is crucial for promoting public health and preventing outbreaks of preventable diseases in Brazil.

Animal, human, and environmental perspectives on anthrax in Bangladesh

BackgroundIn Bangladesh, the zoonotic transmission of anthrax from animals to humans poses substantial challenges for prevention and control programs, especially in resource-constrained settings. A comprehensive literature review was conducted focusing on anthrax infections in animals, humans, and the environment to enable better design of prevention and control strategies. Materials and methodsWe followed PRISMA guidelines to collect data on anthrax infection in animals and humans from reports between 1980 and January 2023. We used a standardized data extraction template to collect data on study location, year, hosts, deaths and risk factors responsible for anthrax occurrences at the animal, human and environmental sectors. Subsequently, we conducted a thorough analysis of the data gathered to identify the factors responsible for anthrax occurrences and to propose updated strategies for anthrax prevention and control. ResultsOf the 27 articles analyzed, 20 focused on animal or human anthrax, while seven addressed environmental contaminations. A total of 6354 cases of anthrax infection in animals were recorded, with 998 fatalities and an overall case fatality of 15.7 %. In humans, inadequate knowledge about anthrax and its transmission was a significant factor. Risk factors for human cutaneous anthrax included activities such as slaughtering diseased animals and contact with contaminated raw meat or blood. Risky practices such as disposal of animal carcasses in floodwaters or water bodies were observed in some areas, contributing to the persistence of the anthrax pathogen in the environment. ConclusionsOur study highlights the necessity of a multisectoral One Health approach to effectively control and prevent anthrax outbreaks in both animals and humans. This approach should include comprehensive vaccination programs, social and behavioral change activities, environmental management, and the establishment of surveillance systems. Implementing these recommendations will be crucial in addressing the complex challenges posed by anthrax in low-resource settings.

Balancing Routine and Pandemic: The Synergy of India's Universal Immunization Program and COVID-19 Vaccination Program.

The COVID-19 pandemic posed substantial challenges to healthcare systems globally and severely disrupted essential health services, including routine immunization programs. In India, these disruptions were exacerbated due to the sudden emergence of the pandemic and lockdown measures, leading to mass migrations and a shortage of healthcare workers. Caregivers' concerns about routine immunization sessions further compounded the problem, resulting in a sharp increase in zero-dose children. This review paper examines India's strategies for conducting one of the world's largest COVID-19 vaccination programs while effectively restoring and perpetuating its Universal Immunization Program (UIP). The UIP played a pivotal role in sustaining immunization services during the pandemic, ultimately improving immunization coverage compared to pre-pandemic levels. India's accomplishments in this regard are highlighted through key performance indicators, the reach of immunization services, a reduction in zero-dose children, and antigen-wise coverage. The paper also discusses the successful integration of COVID-19 vaccination within the UIP framework, underscoring the significance of existing infrastructure, technology, and capacity building. India's dedication to concurrently managing routine immunization and COVID-19 vaccination showcases the adaptability and resilience of its healthcare system. India's journey serves as a global example of efficient mass immunization during challenging times, emphasizing the importance of political will, healthcare infrastructure investment, skilled healthcare workforces, and comprehensive vaccination programs. In a world grappling with the dual challenge of COVID-19 and routine immunization, India's experience provides a roadmap for strengthening healthcare systems and promoting public health as the critical agenda in challenging times.

Cultural mapping and SARS-CoV-2 vaccination: An ethnic perspective

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced a comprehensive vaccination program that spans across social, geographical, and political boundaries. Our study aims to evaluate the program's effectiveness and explore the social factors that can influence its success globally. By analyzing data on immunization coverage and COVID-19 vaccination status for 196 and 187 countries, respectively, and taking into account the cultural values of 110 countries, we identified a correlation between vaccination success and societal openness to change. Our findings suggest that a history of good immunization coverage alone may not guarantee successful vaccine rollout; an optimistic ecosystem is also necessary. People must be willing to accept and apply the solution, and the rollout must address their psychological need for 360-degree success. Our study thus highlights the importance of understanding the social outlook to calibrate the attainment scale of global vaccination programs.

High Frequency of HPV Genotypes 16 and 18 Found in Breast Cancer Patients: Evidence for a More Comprehensive HPV Vaccination Program in Iran

Background & Objectives: Papillomaviruses are found in many different types of infections and in a wide range of animals and humans. They can cause health problems, including benign and malignant tumors. In the present study, the association between human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and breast cancer (BC) in Iran was investigated.
 Materials & Methods: In this cross-sectional study, the presence of the HPV genome was investigated in BC-suspected tissues for the first time in Qom Province, Iran. A total of 400 samples (including 200 BC-suspected tissue samples and 200 blood samples of women without BC) were collected from women referred to two cancer-specific general hospitals. To determine the presence of the L1 gene of HPV in the collected samples, nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed. Then, HPV-positive samples were tested by PCR using high-risk specific HPV-16 and 18 primers.
 Results: Out of 200 BC-suspected tissue samples, 172 were malignant (in terms of pathology). Based on the nested PCR method, the L1 gene of HPV was detected in 12% (24/200) of the BC-suspected tissue samples and in 1.5% (3/200) of the blood samples from women without BC. The high-risk HPV genotypes (which were the predominant types) were present in 75% of the samples.
 Conclusion: The results of the current study show a high frequency of HPV-16 and 18 genotypes in human BC in Iranian women. This is almost certainly due to poor rates of HPV vaccination, and it is strongly recommended that health organizations (such as the World Health Organization [WHO]) ensure adequate coverage of highly effective HPV vaccination in Iran.

COVID-19 Vaccination Rollout: Aspects of Hesitancy in South Africa.

Across the globe, comprehensive COVID-19 vaccination programs have been rolled out. Naturally, it remains paramount for efficiency to ensure uptake. Hypothetical vaccine acceptability in South Africa was high prior to the availability of inoculation in August 2020-three-quarters stated intent to immunize nationally. However, 24 months on, less than one-third have finished their vaccination on a national average, and in the sprawling South Western Townships (Soweto), this figure remains troublingly low with as many as four in every five still hesitant. Medical anthropologists have recently portrayed how COVID-19's jumbled mediatization produces a 'field of suspicion' casting serious doubt on authorities and vaccines through misinformation and counterfactual claims, which fuels 'othering' and fosters hesitancy. It follows that intent to immunize cannot be used to predict uptake. Here, we take this conceptual framework one step further and illustrate how South African context-specific factors imbricate to amplify uncertainty and fear due the productive nature of communicability, which transforms othering into racialization and exacerbates existing societal polarizations. We also encounter Africanized forms of conspiracy theories and find their narrational roots in colonization and racism. Finally, we discuss semblances with HIV and how the COVID-19 pandemic's biomedicalization may inadvertently have led to vaccine resistance due to medical pluralism and cultural/spiritual practices endemic to the townships.

Cyto- and histoarchitectonics of the chicken spleen in the post-vaccination period

One of the main functions of the spleen is participation in many immunological processes, protecting the body from various harmful agents. It is a secondary organ of lymphopoiesis and the only organ of immunogenesis, which provides immune control of blood and detects genetically foreign agents in it, and performs the role of a biological filter. Therefore, the Study of its histo-architectonics has theoretical and practical significance. The histostructure of the spleen of chickens has significant differences, particularly the absence of trabeculae, a small amount of connective tissue based around large vessels. The structure of the spleen of one-day-old vaccinated and non-vaccinated chickens is not formed, as there is no differentiation of the white pulp from the red pulp, which is related to the biological features of the chickens' body. According to our research, the presence of lymphoid nodules is observed for the first time in the 25-day age of the vaccinated group chickens. According to morphometric studies, it was established that their number was 2.33 ± 0.42 pcs. Comprehensive farm vaccination programs include ten vaccinations of chickens up to 100 days of age. Under the influence of multiple antigenic stimulations in the following age periods of a 50-day-old bird (after six vaccinations: twice against infectious bronchitis and infectious bursal disease, once against Marek's disease and Newcastle disease), the 75-day (after nine times vaccination), 100-day (after ten times vaccination) number and sizes of lymphoid nodules, as well as periarterial lymphoid sheaths and periellipsoid lymphoid sheaths increased concerning chickens of the control group. Our research established that the histostructure of the spleen of one-day-old chickens of the experimental and control groups is incomplete. The bird's spleen, a peripheral organ of immune protection, is formed at 25 days. However, chickens are vaccinated twice (against Marek's disease and infectious bronchitis) in the incubator when they are less than one day old, and 90% of the planned vaccinations are completed by the age of 75 days. Therefore, studying morphological changes in the spleen of birds of different ages can be an essential tool for re-evaluating preventive treatment protocols in modern poultry farming.

Care pathways in invasive meningococcal disease: a retrospective analysis of the French national public health insurance database

ABSTRACT Invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) carries a high burden in terms of mortality, long-term complications, and cost, which can be significantly reduced by vaccination. The objectives of this case–control study were to document the care pathways of patients with IMD before, during, and after hospitalization and to assess in-hospital complications and long-term sequelae. Cases consisted of all people hospitalized for IMD in France between 2012 and 2017. Controls were matched by age, gender, and district of residence. Data were extracted from the French national public health insurance database on demographics, hospitalizations, mortality and potential sequelae of IMD. Overall, 3,532 cases and 10,590 controls were assessed and followed up for 2.8 years (median). During hospitalization, 1,577 cases (44.6%) stayed in an intensive care unit, 1,238 (35.1%) required mechanical ventilation, and 43 (1.2%) underwent amputation; 293 cases (8.3%) died in hospital and a further 163 (4.6%) died following discharge; 823 cases (25.4% of survivors) presented ≥1 sequela and 298 (9.2%) presented multiple sequelae. The most frequently documented sequelae were epilepsy (N = 205; 5.8%), anxiety (N = 196; 5.5%), and severe neurological disorders (N = 193; 5.5%). All individual sequelae were significantly more frequent (p < .0001) in cases than controls. Hearing/visual impairment and communication problems were conditions that presented the highest risk for cases compared to controls (risk ratios >20 in all cases). In conclusion, this study highlights the importance of providing optimal medical care for patients with IMD, of minimizing the delay before hospitalization, and of effective prevention through comprehensive vaccination programs.

Epidemiology and Clinical Outcomes of Patients with Confirmed Influenza in Mashhad, Iran in 2019

Background: Influenza is a contagious and acute viral disease caused by influenza viruses involving upper and lower respiratory tract system, especially in the cold seasons. Children aged less than 5 years old, elderly people, immunocompromised patients, pregnant women, and people with certain health conditions are at a higher risk for the disease and severe complications. Objectives: Due to the serious complications of influenza in certain groups, it is important to know which group of people are more at risk and need prevention strategies. This study aimed to investigate the patients with confirmed influenza, identify the people who are at a higher risk for infection, and assess the clinical outcomes of disease among patients. Methods: In this cross-sectional and descriptive study, we studied the files of all patients with confirmed influenza referred to the health centers in Mashhad, Iran, during autumn and winter of 2019 when influenza virus was prevalent. The disease was confirmed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method. We studied all registered data related to the flu, including gender, age, residency, history of vaccination, risk factors, complications, and clinical outcomes. Results: In this study, 2977 patients (3% outpatients vs. 97% hospitalized) with flu like syndrome were tested by RT-PCR for influenza. Out of 84 outpatients, only two cases were positive for influenza. Among hospitalized patients, 80 cases (51% male vs. 49% female; age range: 1 - 87 years) had a positive RT-PCR test, and influenza type A was seen in 95% of cases. Pneumonia was the most common complication. Death happened in 29 (35.36%) patients and three (33.33%) cases with risk factors. The highest number of influenza patients (31 [37.8%]) had been reported from district No. 3 of Mashhad municipality, which is a crowded place and near the holy shrine. Conclusions: The results showed a high prevalence of complication and death among hospitalized patients, especially among those who did not have a risk factor for influenza viruses. Comprehensive vaccination programs and promotion of knowledge about transmission routes are two important measures for disease prevention and lower death rates.

Covid-19 1 year on: The challenge for low-middle income countries.

Covid-19 1 year on: The challenge for low-middle income countries.

A comprehensive Cervical Cancer Control Plan in a low-middle income country: Bangladesh perspective

Carcinoma cervix is one of the most important preventable and curable diseases of women of reproductive age. Human Papilloma Virus (HPV), especially the oncogenic HPV are the main culprit of this disease. Effective vaccination of HPV can prevent Carcinoma cervix and it is the preferred method for long-term reduction of Cervical neoplasia. Developed countries have established comprehensive HPV vaccination programs, but it is not established in the low-middle income countries yet. The objective of our paper is to evaluate the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of HPV vaccination for the prevention of Ca Cervix and make a comprehensive cancer control plan for Ca Cervix in a low-middle income country setting. We used narrative analysis to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of HPV vaccination for a low resource low-middle income country and propose a comprehensive cancer control plan appropriate for them. Primary prevention (HPV vaccination) along with Secondary prevention (Screening by Visual Inspection with Acetic Acid-VIA or Pap smear or HPV DNA detection) and early treatment of precancerous lesions are very much cost-effective for the prevention of Cervical cancer. Carcinoma cervix is a preventable and curable disease despite rapidly growing cancer with high mortality and morbidity. A comprehensive cancer control plan with effective screening and HPV vaccination will make a difference by reducing the national and global burden of Cervical.

Burden of selected infectious diseases covered by UK childhood vaccinations: systematic literature review.

Aim: An overview of recent epidemiology and disease burden, independent of patient age, of diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hepatitis B, poliomyelitis and Hemophilus influenzae invasive disease in the UK. Materials & methods: A systematic review was undertaken. Outcomes included incidence, prevalence, risk factors and cost burden. Results: 39publications were included. Hepatitis B prevalence is high among certain risk groups. A small pertussis risk remains in pregnancy and for infants, which led to the introduction of maternal vaccination. H. influenzae invasive disease cases are limited to rare serotypes. Polio, tetanus and diphtheria are well controlled. Conclusion: The evaluated diseases are currently well controlled, thanks to a comprehensive vaccination program, with a generally low clinical and cost burden.

Towards eradication of peste des petits ruminants: post-vaccination evaluation in sheep and goats in Southern Peninsular India.

The cross-sectional seroprevalence study of the peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in sheep and goats was carried out in the Southern Peninsular region of India to ascertain the prevalence of PPR virus (PPRV) antibodies at the epidemiological units (epi-units) level in the small ruminant population. The serum samples were collected from various epi-units (villages) in the different states and union territory (UT)in Southern Peninsular region using a stratified random sampling methodology from August 2017 to March 2018. A total of 6643 serum samples [sheep (n = 2785) and goats (n = 3858)] were collected from 360 epi-units and were screened by PPR competitive ELISA kit for the detection of PPRV antibodies. The results revealed that the seroprevalence of PPR in small ruminants in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala states, and Puducherry UT was 87.0%, 66.4%, 64.3%, 47.8%, 11.4%, and 50.4%, respectively in the studied region. Further, the results of the chi-squared test revealed that the PPRV antibodies across different states and UT in the region were associated (sheep-χ2 = 218.8, p < 0.01; goats-χ2 = 827.1, p < 0.01), as all the states and UT adopted the PPR vaccination programme. The study also implies that the small ruminants in some of the epi-units (n = 102) had < 30% seroprevalence, which necessitates comprehensive intensive vaccination and active surveillance programmes to make this region as PPR free zone.

Modelling the impact of 4CMenB and MenACWY meningococcal combined vaccination strategies including potential 4CMenB cross-protection: An application to England

Invasive meningococcal disease (IMD), an uncommon but severe disease, affects mainly infants, young children and adolescents. Meningococcal B (4CMenB) and ACWY (MenACWY) vaccines targeting IMD-causing serogroups B and A, C, W and Y, respectively are available for these mostly-affected age-groups. The objective was to assess the impact of 4CMenB and/or MenACWY vaccination strategies on IMD in England, considering MenACWY carriage protection and potential cross-protection of 4CMenB against non-B serogroups.A novel dynamic transmission model was developed, accounting for vaccine characteristics, with separate variables for meningococcal carriage and IMD for three groups: B; ACWY; and ’Other‘ mostly non-pathogenic serogroups. A dynamic force of infection is assumed for each group. The model analysis uses data from England before 2015 (when 4CMenB and MenACWY were introduced), and accounts for existing MenC vaccination impact.Compared with no vaccination, the smallest decrease in IMD cases is observed for MenACWY strategies (toddler and/or adolescent). 4CMenB (infant or infant/adolescent), alone or with MenACWY, always results in the most rapid and steep decline in IMD cases. Combined strategies with adolescent 4CMenB result in the largest decrease in IMD cases, whereas adding MenACWY for toddlers has a minor impact. With potential 4CMenB cross-protection, 4CMenB infant strategy has a notable impact on reduction of MenW and MenY IMD cases in strategies where MenACWY toddler and/or adolescent vaccination is absent.This novel model allows for analysis of combined 4CMenB and MenACWY strategies including potential 4CMenB cross-protection. In settings comparable to England, a comprehensive meningococcal vaccination programme should include infant 4CMenB as essential building block. Decisions to include MenACWY toddler programmes should consider herd effects of MenACWY adolescent programmes and 4CMenB potential cross-protection effects. Extending 4CMenB infant and MenACWY adolescent programmes with a 4CMenB adolescent programme allows for the largest overall reduction in IMD cases.

Identifying vaccination rates of adult patients in ambulatory care clinics.

Background:While pharmacists have provided vaccinations to patients in the community pharmacy setting, pharmacist involvement within the medical office setting is not well documented in the literature. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists reports that ambulatory care pharmacists are screening for and administering vaccinations at a declining rate, despite standards of practice. Vaccination rates for adults 19–64 years of age remain low, based on Healthy People 2020 goals, putting them at risk for vaccine-preventable diseases.Objectives:The aim of the study was to assess vaccination rates of ambulatory care pharmacy clinic patients aged 19–64 years and to compare the rates between three clinics and to Healthy People 2020 goals.Methods:This was a baseline retrospective analysis of vaccination rates for patients aged 19–64 years who attended at least one pharmacy clinic visit at one of the three medical office practices. Age, sex, medical conditions, cigarette or alcohol use, immunosuppressive medications, and vaccines recommended and received were recorded. Vaccination status was assessed according to the Advisory Committee for Immunization Practices recommendations. Data were collected from January 2016 to March 2017. The percentage of eligible patients who received each vaccine was determined overall and for each clinic.Results:There were 240 patients who met the inclusion criteria, with a mean age of 52.8 years. The percentage of patients with vaccination documented in the medical record was 25% for pneumococcal conjugate, 35.7% for pneumococcal polysaccharide, 26.9% for zoster vaccine live, 6.4% for hepatitis B, and 50.6% for tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis. Vaccination rates for pneumococcal conjugate, pneumococcal polysaccharide, and zoster vaccine live were below established Healthy People 2020 goals.Conclusion:Vaccination rates remain low in adults 19–64 years of age. Ambulatory care pharmacists should consider assessing vaccination status during clinic visits as a component of comprehensive vaccination programs.

Vaccination of healthcare personnel in Europe: Update to current policies

We investigated and compared current national vaccination policies for health-care personnel (HCP) in Europe with results from our previous survey. Data from 36 European countries were collected using the same methodology as in 2011. National policies for HCP immunization were in place in all countries. There were significant differences in terms of number of vaccinations, target HCP and healthcare settings, and implementation regulations (recommended or mandatory vaccinations). Vaccination policies against hepatitis B and seasonal influenza were present in 35 countries each. Policies for vaccination of HCP against measles, mumps, rubella and varicella existed in 28, 24, 25 and 19 countries, respectively; and against tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis and poliomyelitis in 21, 20, 19, and 18 countries, respectively. Recommendations for hepatitis A immunization existed in 17 countries, and against meningococcus B, meningococcus C, meningococcus A, C, W, Y, and tuberculosis in 10, 8, 17, and 7 countries, respectively. Mandatory vaccination policies were found in 13 countries and were a pre-requisite for employment in ten. Comparing the vaccination programs of the 30 European countries that participated in the 2011 survey, we found that more countries had national vaccination policies against measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis A, diphtheria, tetanus, poliomyelitis, pertussis, meningococcus C and/or meningococcus A, C, W, Y; and more of these implemented mandatory vaccination policies for HCP. In conclusion, European countries now have more comprehensive national vaccination programs for HCP, however there are still gaps. Given the recent large outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases in Europe and the occupational risk for HCP, vaccination policies need to be expanded and strengthened in several European countries. Overall, vaccination policies for HCP in Europe should be periodically re-evaluated in order to provide optimal protection against vaccine-preventable diseases and infection control within healthcare facilities for HCP and patients.

Trials for bovine diagnosis using molecular biology

Background: Brucellosis is a major bacterial zoonosis of global importance affecting a range of different mammals including cattle, sheep, goats, swine, rodents, marine mammals and man worldwide. In order to control brucellosis, comprehensive vaccination, surveillance and quarantine programs should be implemented. Both of control and prevention procedures are highly depending on accurate diagnostic tools and effective and safe vaccination programs. idea of this ELISA kit depends on the facts that eryC gene is absent in Brucella abortus S19 only but it is present and functional in all other brucella strains and isolates. Methods & Materials: omp31 as a DNA vaccine against Brucellosis were evaluated in Balb/C mice where eryC recombinant protein as a coating antigen for accurte diagnosis of brucellosis and differention between vaccinated and infected cattle were evaluated using IELISA aganist ELISA using hot saline extract and soluble brucella proteins as a coating antigens as a control postive. Results: results of DNA vaccine in Balb/C mice revealed a 60% protection after challange using brucella melitensis 16 M where results of ELISArevealed that in case of sera of naturally infected cattle, sero-positivity was 94.7%, 100%, 100% and 100% with eryC-ELISA, HSE-ELISA, SBP-ELISA and rose Bengal test respectively where in case of sera of S19 vaccinated cattle, all samples were negative when tested with eryC-ELISA where in case of HSE-ELISA, SBP-ELISA and Rose Bengal test, sero-positivity was 92.3%, 84.6% and 100% respectively. All sera of brucella free cattle were negative when tested with Rose Bengal test and different IELISA tests. Conclusion: The Results of this study recommended the use of omp31 DNA vaccine as a safe vaccine for control of bovine brucellosis and use of eryC protein as a good diagnostic antigen to be used in serological tests for diagnosis of bovine brucellosis and differentiation between infected and Brucella abortus S19-vaccinated cattle but more studies are needed to be done on large cattle populations accompanied with bacteriological isolation to detect the sensitivity and specificity of this protein as a diagnostic antigen and also for validate this test.

Interplay of Carbohydrate and Carrier in Antibacterial Glycoconjugate Vaccines.

Bacterial infections are a serious health concern and are responsible for millions of illnesses and deaths each year in communities around the world. Vaccination is an important public health measure for reducing and eliminating this burden, and regions with comprehensive vaccination programs have achieved significant reductions in infection and mortality. This is often accomplished by immunization with bacteria-derived carbohydrates, typically in conjunction with other biomolecules, which induce immunological memory and durable protection against bacterial human pathogens. For many species, however, vaccines are currently unavailable or have suboptimal efficacy characterized by short-lived memory and incomplete protection, especially among at-risk populations. To address this challenge, new tools and techniques have emerged for engineering carbohydrates and conjugating them to carrier molecules in a tractable and scalable manner. Collectively, these approaches are yielding carbohydrate-based vaccine designs with increased immunogenicity and protective efficacy, thereby opening up new opportunities for this important class of antigens. In this chapter we detail the current understanding of how carbohydrates interact with the immune system to provide immunity; how glycoengineering, especially in the context of glycoconjugate vaccines, can be used to modify and enhance immune responses; and current trends and strategies being pursued for the rational design of next-generation glycosylated antibacterial vaccines. Graphical Abstract.