Comprehensive Sanctions Research Articles

Features and prospects of the Russian civil aircraft industry development under sanctions pressure from Western countries

The specifics and prospects of development of the Russian civil aircraft industry under sanctions pressure from Western countries have been considered. The study analyzes secondary data from open sources. The main provisions and conclusions of the work are as follows. The United States of America and its European satellites have imposed comprehensive sanctions against Russian air carriers, including a ban on aircraft deliveries. Lessors who owned foreign airplanes made demands for their return, and foreign registrars suspended airworthiness certificates for domestic airplanes. Western sanctions against Russian airlines have caused significant damage to Russia, but have also become a serious stimulus for the domestic aviation industry development. Significant time and investment will be required to resolve the problems encountered. Russia has the necessary potential to restore the aviation industry and ensure safe passenger and cargo transportation in the required volume. The country is currently working systematically to revitalize the industry, implementing advanced developments and establishing serial production of a wide range of civil aircraft. The success of the domestic aviation industry development depends mainly on the state’s efforts, as it has the access to almost all production and design capacities. In addition, effective measures are needed to influence the air transportation industry in order to balance the supply and demand for aircraft.

International Law, Security, and Sanctions: A Decolonial Perspective on the Transnational Legal Order of Sanctions

This article reviews recent literature on sanctions from international law, political science, sociology, anthropology, and history. It shows how the literature during the comprehensive sanctions decade (the 1990s), with a largely critical view on sanctions in the age of globalization, was co-opted by the targetization of sanctions in the sanctions miniaturization decade (the 2000s). It then reviews the sanctions literature in sociology and anthropology during the sanctions enforcement decade (the 2010s), addressing the transnational characteristics of sanctions, their infrastructural materiality in the digital economy, and the deputization of private actors to police their implementation. Last, the article reviews the literature in colonial governmentality to encourage sanctions specialists to take a longer-term view of transnational orders of sanctions. This section ends with a call to decolonize sanctions research—or rather, to question the colonial origins of sanctions as an instrument of world making so that a properly decolonial perspective on sanctions can be elaborated.

OFAC, Famine, and the Sanctioning of Afghanistan: A Catastrophic Policy Success

On August 15, 2021, American military forces withdrew from Kabul, and the sanctioning of Afghanistan began. Marred by the usual problems—ineffective, counterproductive, unwieldy—these sanctions revealed three additional puzzles. First, although grounded in targeted sanctions, they transformed into de facto comprehensive sanctions. Secondly, that transformation was instantaneous and unprompted. Thirdly, a near-famine followed within weeks. I make nested analytical, functional, and explanatory arguments. The analytical argument is that targeted sanctions are best understood not as tools of international coercion but primarily as domestic regulations. The functional argument is that the Office of Foreign Asset Control (OFAC) uses tactical and strategic ambiguity to maximize its regulatory reach over financial intuitions, humanitarian aid organizations, and money transfer organizations. The explanatory argument returns to the puzzles. I argue that, without any signal from OFAC, which was the signal, and reflecting OFAC’s regulatory domination, when the Taliban took Kabul, the international financial community, humanitarian aid organizations, and remittance providers all dissociated from Afghanistan with immediate effect and particularly acute consequences on food entitlements.

ЕВРАЗИЙСКИЙ ИНТЕГРАЦИОННЫЙ ПРОЕКТ В УСЛОВИЯХ ЦИФРОВОЙ ТРАНСФОРМАЦИИ ЭКОНОМИКИ РОССИИ

Digitalization and innovative development occupy an important place on the agenda of the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). Comprehensive sanctions against Russia and changes in trade flows caused by the unstable geopolitical situation have created an obvious need for innovation and digital technologies in finance, transport, customs control, including digital integration. The purpose of the study is to determine the innovative potential of the EAEU in the context of digital infrastructure development and the fourth industrial revolution technologies. The study compares the innovation potential of the EAEU with other regional integration association. It is concluded that if there is a well developed digital infrastructure, the further growth of the innovative potential of the EAEU will be complicated by sanctions preventing access to foreign technologies, and will largely depend on the effectiveness of the import policy in Russia.

俄乌冲突影响下中俄经贸关系：发展现状与建议

Since February 24, 2022, the conflict between Russia and Ukraine has fully intensified. Since the Russia-Ukraine conflict, the West has imposed comprehensive sanctions on Russia. The economic relations between Russia and the West began to break down, Russia subsequently broke away from the International Settlement system (SWIFT), the ruble currency depreciated severely, and the logistics links became more complicated. The economic sanctions of Western countries have put Russia’s economy and finances under great pressure in the short term. In order to counter Western sanctions, Russia has begun to continuously strengthen its relations with China, especially in the field of economic and trade cooperation. As the world’s second largest economy, China has the world’s largest consumer market, which is of great significance to help Russia get rid of the “sanctions crisis”. By drawing on and analyzing relevant online news, the latest data provided by the General Administration of Customs of China, etc., this article introduces the current situation of China-Russia economic and trade development under the influence of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, analyzes the factors affecting the development of China-Russia economic and trade, looks forward to the prospects of China-Russia economic and trade development, and explores how China should appropriately deal with the issues of China-Russia economic and trade relations. The authors believe that in the context of the new era of comprehensive strategic cooperation and partnership between China and Russia, China should pay attention to the following aspects in the process of promoting the development of China-Russia economic and trade relations: formulate multiple sets of emergency plans and adopt appropriate financial and monetary policies; develop Russian economic and trade relations while taking into account economic and trade relations with other countries; strengthen the construction of infrastructure at China-Russia border crossings to better serve the “Belt and Road” initiative, etc.; Strive to maintain China’s image and correctly guide the Chinese people’s public opinion on the Russia-Ukraine conflict.

The Effects of Trade Related Sanctions on Russia on Kazakhstan’s International Trade in Goods

The aim of this study is to explore the effects of sanctions on the international trade of Kazakhstan using data from TradeMap database. The Russia-Ukraine conflict has brought instability to the broader Eurasian continent and significantly affected neighboring states. Kazakhstan and Russia share the second-longest international land border and both participate in the Eurasian Economic Union with a high level of economic integration. Given Kazakhstan's landlocked status, the country relies on Russian territory for its main export routes. Despite expectations of potential issues with oil and gas transportation for Kazakhstan due to sanctions on Russia, there was an increase in mineral exports from Kazakhstan in 2022, resulting in a positive trade balance. High energy prices and inflation in the EU at the start of the invasion led to the delay of oil and gas import bans by the bloc until late 2022. There is also evidence of sanction evasion by Kazakhstani companies, reflected in changes in the structure of exports to Russia. This has prompted visits by officials from sanctioning countries and increased monitoring. Overall, the conflict and subsequent comprehensive sanctions have created uncertainty for investors and require scenario-based long-term planning and additional compliance costs. It is recommended to improve awareness of local companies about the possibility of violating sanctions through corporate training and cooperation with business associations. This will help local businesses to prevent the risk of being subjected to secondary sanctions.

Global Energy Demand and Forecasting: A Managerial Economics Perspective

A military war between Russia and Ukraine resulted from unusual military action by Russia against Ukraine. Comprehensive sanctions were imposed against Russia in the areas of energy, finance, the economy, and other areas by European and American nations. The Russian-Ukrainian wars, which have been the most significant security event in recent international politics, will surely induce changes and adjustments to European geopolitics, political order, the international rule system, as well as economic ties. This paper focuses on the study of Global energy demand and forecasting from the perspective of global management economics. This paper will show the analysis of energy demand in the form of charts and use the Reference method and Time series analysis respectively to forecast the future energy. However, human demand for energy will double in the future as population growth and other factors change.

Questionable Allies: British Collaboration with Apartheid South Africa, 1960–90

From 1960, as the horrors of the apartheid system in South Africa were steadily revealed to the world, the international community turned against a country once seen as a bastion of peace and prosperity on the African continent. The United Nations debated the imposition of comprehensive sanctions against South Africa, yet the USA, France, and Britain stood against such a drastic measure. Though the levers of government would change hands between Labour and Conservative Prime Ministers, Britain’s policy in opposing sanctions against South Africa from 1960 to the final fall of apartheid in 1994 would steadfastly remain. This article deploys archival material to examine the motivations behind this British policy, and highlights three key factors: anxiety about the potential impact of sanctions on Britain itself; the context of the global Cold War; and British aversion to what were perceived as the ANC’s ‘terrorist’ actions. These were the motivations behind Britain’s continued trade and collaboration with South Africa throughout the period of apartheid. The archival sources dealing with the background to this policy starkly reveal the darker legacies of colonialism that continued to shape British policies and the attitudes of those at the highest levels of British government over these years.

Russia, Ukraine, and the West: Are Smart Economic Sanctions Effective?

Abstract February 24, 2022, after several months of preparation, Russia launched a full-scale war against Ukraine. For the EU and NATO states, Russia’s aggression against Ukraine means, inter alia, a major change for their security. But Russia’s war against Ukraine has been going on since 2014. In reaction, the EU, the US, and other Western states imposed economic sanctions on Russia in 2014. The subject of research is primarily comprehensive (general) sanctions. Another type of economic sanctions—targeted (smart) sanctions—are relatively new, so there is also relatively little research devoted to them. The main purpose of the article is to investigate the impact of smart (targeted) sanctions on five banks: Sberbank, VTB Bank, Gazprombank, Vnesheconombank (VEB), Rosselkhozbank, and three oil companies: Rosneft, Transneft and Gazpromneft. The study has been conducted on the basis of the analysis of the basic indicators illustrating the financial situation and changes in the prices of shares listed on the Moscow Exchange. The main finding is that the effects of sanctions are relatively weak and limited in time; in 2015–2017, a deterioration in the financial situation of only some of the eight corporations surveyed was noticeable, but later their situation improved significantly and in 2018–2019 it was clearly better than before the sanctions were imposed.

УКРАЇНСЬКЕ ПИТАННЯ У ЗОВНІШНІЙ ПОЛІТИЦІ ВЕЛИКОЇ БРИТАНІЇ В УМОВАХ РОСІЙСЬКОЇ АГРЕСІЇ

The article analyses the impact of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland on the development of international relations in the context of the armed conflict in Ukraine. The determination of the political course of the UK is the starting point of the research, which determines the following analysis of its foreign policy on Ukraine. The UK's role and strategy in relations with Ukraine and other countries during the conflict are also explored. The article deals with UK contribution to the resolution of the crisis and its support for Ukrainian sovereignty and territorial integrity. The article also analyses the impact of the UK on the position of other major international actors such as the United States of America, the European Union in their relations with Ukraine. The United Kingdom's relations with Japan, Australia, Canada, and individual members of the European Union (Germany, France, Poland, Hungary) are analysed in the light of the armed conflict in Ukraine and joint initiatives to support and de-escalate the situation. The article analyses various aspects of the UK support for Ukraine, including diplomatic initiatives with both individual states and international organisations, military assistance, humanitarian aid, comprehensive sanctions, and political support at various levels. The possible consequences of the UK influence on the future development of international relations in the region and possible ways of further cooperation between the UK and Ukraine in resolving the armed conflict is also considered in the article. The article deals with the UK's policy in the UN (the Security Council and the UN General Assembly) and its efforts to reform the structure of the organisation in order to exclude the possibility of the RF's influence on it. The country's policy in the Council of Europe, UN organisations, the ICJ and the ICC is another key point in the article in the light of the Russian Federation's responsibility for the situation in Ukraine. Close cooperation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland with NATO and the European Union is also assessed in the article with the aim of determining the actual level of political agreements between the parties to overcome the current situation in Ukraine. Some peculiarities of the regional policy of the UK determine the level of support of separate states to the UK directly and to Ukraine indirectly. The key aspects of the UK’s influence on the development of international relations in the context of the armed conflict in Ukraine are substantiated and contribute to a better understanding of the UK's role in regional and global politics. Keywords: Great Britain, foreign policy, Russian-Ukrainian war, Russian aggression against Ukraine.

SANCTIONS AS TOOL FOR STRATEGIC DETERRENCE: AN ASSESSMENT OF TARGETED SANCTIONS IN RUSSIA

Strategic deterrence through the use of sanctions in the international system is gaining support among major players. This is despite widespread scepticism over the instrument's efficacy, as seen by the widespread opposition to its use immediately following its implementation in Iraq in the immediate aftermath of the end of the Cold War. The takeover of Ukraine is the first opportunity since World War II to analyse the results of sanctions on a major power and permanent member of the UN Security Council. The issue raises the question of whether or not sanctions on Russia would be an effective strategy in stopping their aggressiveness in Ukraine. In this article, we analyse how targeted sanctions against Russia's economy can alter the course of the conflict in Ukraine. Given the energy linkages that most of these governments have with Russia, we see the sanctions' proponents the United States, the European Union, and the Baltic States suffering increasingly negative consequences. We also contextualise the acts of sanction busters empowered by the United States' inability to develop a consensus at the United Nations General Assembly and by Russia's veto to thwart the criminalization of their conduct in the United Nations Security Council. Despite this, it is becoming apparent that Russia's economy is feeling the effects of the sanctions, which is substantially diminishing their ability to properly prosecute the war. Methodologically, the study used a historical approach, meaning that it relied on information gathered from previously existing sources including encyclopaedias, encyclopaedia articles, and news stories. In conclusion, the data appears to bolster the view that the possible risk spawned in the harsh reality of targeted or comprehensive sanctions on Russia given the extent of the punishment regime is an acceptable price for the maintenance of the rule-based international order.

Ethical dilemma of economic sanctions as an external threat

The article aims to identify the current approaches that enable to resolve the ethical dilemma of economic sanctions, treated as a contradiction between the goals and consequences of imposing sanctions as an alternative to war and an instrument of an external threat. We consider the standard definition of economic sanctions as restrictions imposed by sender state, associated with worsening of current economic conditions in target country, aimed to force the ruling regime of the latter to change its domestic political course and/or foreign policy. The research methods include general scientific methods, comparative historical analysis and cross-country comparative analysis; elements of political and legal analysis; systematic literature review. The moral permissibility of sanctions had been reflected in the ethical dilemma of economic sanctions: the choice of sanctions as an alternative to war and an instrument of an external threat that has a potential positive impact on the policy of target country, and potential negative humanitarian consequences for the civilian population that can offset the positive results that the sender associates with a change in target country’s policy. The new paradigm in sanctions policy based on the replacement of comprehensive sanctions with targeted ones can be considered as an attempt to resolve such dilemma. We analyze the main background of this new model. We determine that the analysis of sanctions’ compliance with just war principles is essential in arguing their moral and ethical permissibility. In addition, we classify main approaches studying the moral permissibility of economic sanctions within the framework of just war theory. As a conclusion, we reveal that the application of just war principles as such to assess the moral permissibility of economic sanctions is debatable, and further research should be focused on choice and use of methodological tools that are more appropriate to the economic nature of sanctions.

Russian Big Business Under Sanctions: The Dilemma Between Loyalty and Exit

The article addresses behavioral strategies of top Russian entrepreneurs operating in the export and resource sectors in the context of comprehensive sanctions imposed by Western countries. The choice of behavioral strategy is considered in the context of two types of networking that have developed in the post-Soviet period. The first type of networking implies the involvement into the inner economic chains supported by the ruling group. In the second type of networking, the participants are involved into global value chains (GVCs). Two framework strategies of behavior emerged after the first “wave” of sanctions imposed in 2014. The first strategy was adopted by top entrepreneurs who have deep friendly relations with the "ruler". The proponents of this strategy, being supported by the ruling group, transformed into the operators of quasi-public resources with the minimum dependence on GVCs. The second strategy was formed by the owners of Alfa Group who sought to emphasize their political neutrality. The imposition of sanctions in 2022 showed that the first strategy was productive. Meanwhile, the strategy of Alfa Group members turned out to be a failure – the entrepreneurs were not protected from the Western sanctions and devalued their position in the Russian power vertical. Since the amount of resources distributed by the ruling group is limited, the strategy of the Russian top entrepreneurs is based on finding the balance within the two types of networking

Uluslararası Hukuk Açısından Tahıl Koridoru Andlaşması’nın Kısa Bir Analizi

24 Şubat 2022 Perşembe günü Rusya Federasyonu tarafından Ukrayna topraklarına yönelik başlatılan askeri saldırı, uluslararası toplumda yoğun tepkiler doğurmuştur. Bu tepkiler sonucunda, başta Birleşmiş Milletler (BM) ve Avrupa Birliği (AB) üyeleri tarafından Rusya’ya yönelik geniş kapsamlı yaptırım kararları alınmıştır. Öte yandan, Rusya’nın Ukrayna limanlarına yönelik uyguladığı askeri abluka nedeniyle, Ukrayna’dan başta Kuzey Afrika ülkelerine olmak üzere 3. ülkelere yönelik tahıl ihracatı engellenmektedir. Bu durum, Dünya tahıl fiyatlarında yüksek fiyat artışına yol açarak, küresel düzeyde bir gıda güvenliği sorununa ve açlık tehdidine sebep olmuştur. Bu sorunun çözümü için başta Türkiye olmak üzere BM aracılığıyla yürütülen diplomatik girişimler başarılı olmuş ve 22 Temmuz 2022 tarihinde Rusya, Ukrayna, Türkiye ve BM tarafından kısaca “Tahıl Koridoru Andlaşması” olarak ifade edilen “Tahıl ve Yiyecek Maddelerin Ukrayna Limanlarından Emniyetli Sevki Girişimi Belgesi” imzalanmıştır. Bu andlaşma ile Ukrayna’nın Odesa, Çornomorsk ve Yujniy limanları üzerinden çizilen kırmızı hat boyunca güvenli rotaların oluşturulması ve bu güvenli koridorlardan yararlanılarak gıda sevkiyatının sağlanması gıda maddelerinin ve özellikle de tahıl ürünlerinin güvenli bir şekilde geçişi sağlanarak, küresel gıda fiyatlarının ve gıda kıtlığının azaltılması amaçlanmıştır. İmzalanmasında Türkiye’nin de önemli rol üstlendiği bu uzlaşma metninin hazırlık süreci, kapsamı ve uygulanmasının hukuki olarak değerlendirilmesi bu çalışmanın temel amacını oluşturmaktadır.

Western Sanctions on Xinjiang: An Impact Assessment

Western Sanctions on Xinjiang:An Impact Assessment Alexander Kriebitz (bio) Following reports on escalating human rights violations in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR), the West has responded with economic sanctions on organizations and individuals involved in atrocity crimes including an American embargo of goods manufactured by forced labor of Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities. In order to substantiate the debate on the utility of sanctioning the XUAR, the following article sheds light onto the political, economic, and human rights implications of the imposed measures. The preliminary observations discussed in the article point at the practical limitations of sanctioning entities at a subnational level, reveal how economic and political costs reduce the size of the sanctioning coalition, and suggest that the current sanctions framework enhances the relative power of state-affiliated agents within Xinjiang's political economy vis-à-vis private sector entities. Introduction The normative and empirical perspectives of economic statecraft have been studied from the perspectives of several disciplines, including international law, political science, and economics. These discourses address economic statecraft as primarily a legitimate instrument of foreign policy and elaborate on the effective strategy for navigating commercial ties with authoritarian regimes. Following its "reform and open door policy" (改革开放) in the late 1970s and 1980s, China has widely been regarded as setting the primary example of the change-through-trade argument: that an increase in commercial relations and gradual market liberalization can spark improvements in social development and human rights.1 However, in tandem with a longer trend of steadily worsening relations between China and the West, allegations that the Chinese government is committing genocide in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) have challenged this narrative. Simultaneously, the international community's response to the situation in XUAR has reignited the debate on the utility of economic sanctions as a means to enforce policy changes.2 The following article integrates the parallel academic discourses on economic statecraft and the situation in the XUAR to provide a more nuanced perspective on the manifold political and economic repercussions of the use of economic statecraft in Xinjiang. This paper concentrates on the international sanctions which have targeted the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC) and the solar industry in XUAR as they are indicative of the effects of sanctions on other business sectors in the region owing to the dominance of the XPCC in the cotton and the agricultural sectors of the XUAR.3 The examination of the Xinjiang case yields an important finding, namely that traditional concepts of economic statecraft including smart and comprehensive sanctions are limited when employed against an economic superpower and on entities at the subnational level. [End Page 238] Economic statecraft: its prospects and discontents Economic statecraft is the use of economic power in international affairs. These measures include smart sanctions, comprehensive embargoes, and trade agreements that aim to enforce concessions or spark political changes in authoritarian regimes.4 The rationale behind economic statecraft is derived from the economic and geopolitical considerations of both value-based and national interest-centered foreign policy approaches.5 The traditional view in international law suggests that the UN Security Council is the only institution with the legitimacy to enact punitive measures against states.6 However, in the past and present Western states have employed economic sanctions in response to perceived violations of international law.7 Thus, Western policymakers often comprehend economic sanctions as an instrument to deter acts of aggression or gross human rights violations.8 The distinction between smart and comprehensive sanctions hints at competing aims behind the concept of economic statecraft. Smart sanctions single out individuals and organizations complicit in norm violations as a form of punishment, whereas comprehensive sanctions derive their strategic power and legitimacy by imposing economic costs on and enforcing improvement of human rights in the targeted country. Economic and political costs created by sanctions are believed to change the calculus of political leaders and to increase the likelihood for concessions and subsequent improvements of human rights. The legitimacy of sanctions rests on the assumptions that sanctions require support from a closely aligned sanctioning coalition; that this coalition imposes significant costs on the entities complicit in or profiting from perceived violations of international law; and finally, that...

Consequences of economic sanctions on minority groups in the sanctioned states

AbstractThis study explores the effects of economic sanctions on vulnerable groups within target states. When a state uses economic sanctions to realize its foreign policy goals, the government in the sanctioned state usually pursues harsh domestic policies against its ethnic minority groups by employing rally around the flag effect policies. Resultant domestic policies work by casting members of minority groups as traitors and then scapegoating them as the cause underlying the sanctions. Many cases have resulted in the mistreatment and death of innocent people due to the target state governments' counter‐sanctions policies at the domestic level. In this paper, I analyze the negative effects of economic sanctions on minority groups with a focus on the economic, political, and social discrimination of minority groups within sanctioned states. I argue that comprehensive sanctions are more harmful than targeted sanctions on the minority groups in sanctioned states. By using panel data and logit regression models, I demonstrate that economic sanctions cause target states to enact policies that are discriminatory against members of minority groups. This study contributes to the literature by identifying the effects of comprehensive and targeted sanctions on minority groups in terms of political, economic, and societal dimensions.

Sanctions Against the Russian War on Ukraine: Lessons from History and Current Prospects

This article studies the case of the sanctions against the Russian war on the Ukraine in 2022 against the background of four major and well-documented historical sanction episodes: (1) the anti-Apartheid sanctions of the 1980s, (2) the sanctions against the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in 1990, (3) the sanctions against Iranian nuclear capabilities and (4) the US and EU sanctions against the Russian annexation of the Crimea. Two cases (South Africa and Iran) have a comparatively low probability of success based on pre-sanction trade linkage between sender and target and the target’s regime type (the autocracy score). The key to understanding their success is in the banking channel (debt-crisis and international payment system sanctions) and the behaviour of the private sector (divestment and over-compliance). The failure of the sanctions against Iraq underscores the importance of regime type and the need for a viable exit strategy and shows that some decision-makers cannot be influenced with economic hardship. The 2014 sanctions against Russia illustrate the comparative vulnerability of the European democracies and their weakness in organizing comprehensive sanctions that bite. Given the increased Russian resilience, the increasingly autocratic nature of President Putin’s government, the credibility of his 2014 tit-for-tat strategy and the failure of European democracies to implement appropriate strong and broad-based measures, smart and targeted sanctions are unlikely to influence the Kremlin’s calculus. The European Union could only influence that calculus by restoring its reputation as a credible applicant of strong sanctions, including an embargo on capital goods and a boycott of Russian energy. Sanctions, Comprehensive sanctions, Smart sanctions, Russia, Ukraine, South Africa, Apartheid, Iran, Iraq, Crimea, comparative case study

The unintended consequences of UN sanctions: A qualitative comparative analysis

ABSTRACT Sanctions are widely used foreign policy tools in reaction to crises in world politics. Accordingly, literature on sanction effectiveness—their intended consequences—is abundant. Yet, fewer studies address the unintended consequences of restrictive measures. This is remarkable given that negative externalities are well documented. Our article explores this phenomenon by asking under which conditions sanctions yield negative externalities. We develop a theoretical conceptualization and explanatory framework for studying the unintended consequences of UN sanctions. Empirically, we draw on data from the rich, but scarcely used Targeted Sanctions Consortium and apply qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) to examine negative externalities of UN sanctions, complemented by illustrations from the cases Haiti and North Korea. The results document the existence of multiple pathways toward unintended consequences, highlighting the negative impact of comprehensive and long-lasting sanctions, as well as the ability of autocratic targets with economic means to persist unscathed from sanctions.

Міжнародні санкції як інструмент зовнішньої політики

International relations in the 21th century are experiencing the systemic crisis marked by an increase in the number of local conflicts and hybrid confrontations, as well as by the geopolitical rivalry. Transformations require the development and application of an effective mechanism to combat violations of international law. One of the mechanisms actively used today by participants in international relations is the application of sanctions. The paper analyses different types, purpose, specifics and other characteristics of international sanctions regarded as a tool of modern international policy. There is no certain definition of “sanctions” in international legal instruments. Along with the term, the terms “coercive measures”, “international legal responsibility”, “countermeasures”, etc. are used. International organizations and states are guided by their own advanced documents (i.e., international treaties, laws, etc.) which prescribe the mechanisms for international sanctions application. International sanctions are the form of international legal responsibility applied to a violator of international agreements. Sanctions as a tool of foreign policy are aimed to put pressure on the violating state to halt illegal actions. Sanctions can be imposed in several dimensions: diplomatic, economic, political, etc. Diplomatic sanctions are aimed at expressing disapproval or dissatisfaction with a certain action of the violating state through the international political isolation of the state. The application of the international sanctions involves the use of political means aimed at counteracting the illegal actions of violating countries allowing in such a way the use of the mechanism of international condemnation, partial isolation etc., which leads to negative changes in the image of the violating state. Economic sanctions are the measures of an economic nature directed at the violating state. In modern international relations, the practice of imposing economic sanctions is quite common, which outweighs the quantitative indicators of the total number of sanctions imposed. At the same time, modern international sanctions are mostly targeted as opposed to comprehensive sanctions which separate those responsible for pursuing a particular policy or taking certain actions against the country’s citizens.

U.S.-Imposed Economic Sanctions on Iran in the COVID-19 Crisis From the Human Rights Perspective.

One of the obvious impacts of comprehensive economic sanctions is on pharmaceuticals and supplies, which are essential elements of all functioning health systems. Observers report that comprehensive sanctions imposed on Iran are a barrier to Iran's coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) crisis and could impede Iran's access to coronavirus vaccines. In this minireview, we discuss COVID-19 and its human rights dimensions of U.S. sanctions on Iran. We believe fighting COVID-19 with limited resources during sanctions will produce a humanitarian crisis, and coronavirus is a convincing reason to lift the sanctions on Iran.