Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan Research Articles

The Role of the Everglades Mangrove Ecotone Region (EMER) in Regulating Nutrient Cycling and Wetland Productivity in South Florida

The authors summarize the main findings of the Florida Coastal Everglades Long-Term Ecological Research (FCE-LTER) program in the EMER, within the context of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP), to understand how regional processes, mediated by water flow, control population and ecosystem dynamics across the EMER landscape. Tree canopies with maximum height <3 m cover 49% of the EMER, particularly in the SE region. These scrub/dwarf mangroves are the result of a combination of low soil phosphorus (P < 59 μg P g dw−1) in the calcareous marl substrate and long hydroperiod. Phosphorus limits the EMER and its freshwater watersheds due to the lack of terrigenous sediment input and the phosphorus-limited nature of the freshwater Everglades. Reduced freshwater delivery over the past 50 years, combined with Everglades compartmentalization and a 10 cm rise in coastal sea level, has led to the landward transgression (∼1.5 km in 54 years) of the mangrove ecotone. Seasonal variation in freshwater input strongly controls the temporal variation of nitrogen and P exports (99%) from the Everglades to Florida Bay. Rapid changes in nutrient availability and vegetation distribution during the last 50 years show that future ecosystem restoration actions and land use decisions can exert a major influence, similar to sea level rise over the short term, on nutrient cycling and wetland productivity in the EMER.

New aerial survey and hierarchical model to estimate manatee abundance

AbstractMonitoring the response of endangered and protected species to hydrological restoration is a major component of the adaptive management framework of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan. The endangered Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) lives at the marine‐freshwater interface in southwest Florida and is likely to be affected by hydrologic restoration. To provide managers with prerestoration information on distribution and abundance for postrestoration comparison, we developed and implemented a new aerial survey design and hierarchical statistical model to estimate and map abundance of manatees as a function of patch‐specific habitat characteristics, indicative of manatee requirements for offshore forage (seagrass), inland fresh drinking water, and warm‐water winter refuge. We estimated the number of groups of manatees from dual‐observer counts and estimated the number of individuals within groups by removal sampling. Our model is unique in that we jointly analyzed group and individual counts using assumptions that allow probabilities of group detection to depend on group size. Ours is the first analysis of manatee aerial surveys to model spatial and temporal abundance of manatees in association with habitat type while accounting for imperfect detection. We conducted the study in the Ten Thousand Islands area of southwestern Florida, USA, which was expected to be affected by the Picayune Strand Restoration Project to restore hydrology altered for a failed real‐estate development. We conducted 11 surveys in 2006, spanning the cold, dry season and warm, wet season. To examine short‐term and seasonal changes in distribution we flew paired surveys 1–2 days apart within a given month during the year. Manatees were sparsely distributed across the landscape in small groups. Probability of detection of a group increased with group size; the magnitude of the relationship between group size and detection probability varied among surveys. Probability of detection of individual manatees within a group also differed among surveys, ranging from a low of 0.27 on 11 January to a high of 0.73 on 8 August. During winter surveys, abundance was always higher inland at Port of the Islands (POI), a manatee warm‐water aggregation site, than in the other habitat types. During warm‐season surveys, highest abundances were estimated in offshore habitat where manatees forage on seagrass. Manatees continued to use POI in summer, but in lower numbers than in winter, possibly to drink freshwater. Abundance in other inland systems and inshore bays was low compared to POI in winter and summer, possibly because of low availability of freshwater. During cold weather, maps of patch abundance of paired surveys showed daily changes in manatee distribution associated with rapid changes in air and water temperature as manatees sought warm water with falling temperatures and seagrass areas with increasing temperatures. Within a habitat type, some patches had higher manatee abundance suggesting differences in quality, possibly due to freshwater flow. If hydrological restoration alters the location of quality habitat, postrestoration comparisons using our methods will document how manatees adjust to new resources, providing managers with information on spatial needs for further monitoring or management. Total abundance for the entire area was similar among survey dates. Credible intervals however were large on a few surveys, and may limit our ability to statistically detect trends in total abundance. Additional modeling of abundance with time‐ and patch‐specific covariates of salinity, water temperature, and seagrass abundance will directly link manatee abundance with physical and biological changes due to restoration and should decrease uncertainty of estimates. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.

Use of Hydrologic and Hydrodynamic Modeling for Ecosystem Restoration

Planning and implementation of unprecedented projects for restoring the greater Everglades ecosystem are underway and the hydrologic and hydrodynamic modeling of restoration alternatives has become essential for success of restoration efforts. In view of the complex nature of the South Florida water resources system, regional-scale (system-wide) hydrologic models have been developed and used extensively for the development of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan. In addition, numerous subregional-scale hydrologic and hydrodynamic models have been developed and are being used for evaluating project-scale water management plans associated with urban, agricultural, and inland costal ecosystems. The authors provide a comprehensive summary of models of all scales, as well as the next generation models under development to meet the future needs of ecosystem restoration efforts in South Florida. The multiagency efforts to develop and apply models have allowed the agencies to understand the complex hydrologic interactions, quantify appropriate performance measures, and use new technologies in simulation algorithms, software development, and GIS/database techniques to meet the future modeling needs of the ecosystem restoration programs.

Ecosystem‐Based Management: What Really Happens?

Ecosystem‐Based Management: What Really Happens?

Disappearing into the Environmental–Industrial Complex

Disappearing into the Environmental–Industrial Complex

Judith A. Layzer (Ed): Natural Experiments: Ecosystem-Based Management and the Environment

Ecosystem-based approaches (EBM) to natural resource management are at the forefront of progressive science and policy discussions. This holistic approach is inherently multi-dimensional. Managers and decision-makers must orient their view to all components of an ecosystem, including human interests. Three key underlying principles of EBM include landscape-scale planning that is intentionally collaborative (trans-jurisdiction/trans-sector) with an experimental, adaptive nature. The common single sector approach attends to human activities each in isolation from one another. This approach fails to address, much less maintain, the integrity of the interactions between the management sectors. This leads to a loss of valued ecosystem goods and services and ignorance about fundamental ecological and socio-economic linkages. Through a systematic empirical analysis, this book investigates the ways, and extent to which, seven cases throughout the US employ the three principles above with a goal of understanding whether the promise of EBM theory is effective in practice. Specifically, the author seeks to understand the circumstances that facilitate innovative management practices whose policies “conserve and restore ecosystem health.” Through a “focused comparison method,” evidence of environmental improvements, such as habitat restoration and species conservation, is assessed. Informed judgments are made to determine the ways in which the three principles of EBM affect each case’s outcomes. The first two chapters are contextual in that they place the author’s research aims among scholars’ arguments for and against an EBM approach. This results in both an optimistic and pessimistic model of EBM. These models serve as a baseline from which the author systematically assesses the evidence from each case. The optimistic approach praises EBM aspirations of bringing together otherwise disparate interests to create place-based plans and policies. The intended adaptive and flexible nature of these types of collaborations are hailed as one that promotes individual and institutional learning leading to improved management systems. The pessimistic approach cautions that the inertia infiltrating existing management is stronger than the willingness to create change. In addition, this model holds that stakeholder collaboration will not necessarily lead to consensus and shared goals. Rather, representatives will unknowingly uphold the status quo, act independently, and use power struggles to maintain sectorbased interests. The next seven chapters are each devoted to a case study, all of which have been acknowledged as initiatives experimenting with implementation of EBM principles. Cases include internationally-recognized initiatives and are grouped by terrestrial examples (Austin’s Balcones Canyonlands Conservation Program, San Diego Multiple Species Program) and aquatic examples (Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan, California Bay Delta Program), or are studied for comparison (Arizona Sonoran Desert Conservation Plan, Florida’s Kissimmee River, California Mono Basin). Some follow a more optimistic model of EBM with unintended benefits such as the development of innovative models that provoke thinking about the social and natural interrelationships of a system. Some cases are more in-line with the pessimistic model and have unintended consequences such as the disappointing Hum Ecol (2009) 37:251–252 DOI 10.1007/s10745-009-9229-2

Aquatic fauna as indicators for Everglades restoration: Applying dynamic targets in assessments

Abstract A major goal of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) is to recover historical (pre-drainage) wading bird rookeries and reverse marked decreases in wading bird nesting success in Everglades National Park. To assess efforts to restore wading birds, a trophic hypothesis was developed that proposes seasonal concentrations of small-fish and crustaceans (i.e., wading bird prey) were a key factor to historical wading bird success. Drainage of the Everglades has diminished these seasonal concentrations, leading to a decline in wading bird nesting and displacing them from their historical nesting locations. The trophic hypothesis predicts that restoring historical hydrological patterns to pre-drainage conditions will recover the timing and location of seasonally concentrated prey, ultimately restoring wading bird nesting and foraging to the southern Everglades. We identified a set of indicators using small-fish and crustaceans that can be predicted from hydrological targets and used to assess management success in regaining suitable wading bird foraging habitat. Small-fish and crustaceans are key components of the Everglades food web and are sensitive to hydrological management, track hydrological history with little time lag, and can be studied at the landscape scale. The seasonal hydrological variation of the Everglades that creates prey concentrations presents a challenge to interpreting monitoring data. To account for the variable hydrology of the Everglades in our assessment, we developed dynamic hydrological targets that respond to changes in prevailing regional rainfall. We also derived statistical relationships between density and hydrological drivers for species representing four different life-history responses to drought. Finally, we use these statistical relationships and hydrological targets to set restoration targets for prey density. We also describe a report-card methodology to communicate the results of model-based assessments for communication to a broad audience.

Copper Release, Speciation, and Toxicity Following Multiple Floodings of Copper Enriched Agriculture Soils: Implications in Everglades Restoration

This study characterizes the effects of water–soil flooding volume ratio and flooding time on copper (Cu) desorption and toxicity following multiple floodings of field-collected soils from agricultural sites acquired under the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) in south Florida. Soils from four field sites were flooded with three water–soil ratios (2, 4, and 6 [water] to 1 [soil]) and held for 14 days to characterize the effects of volume ratio and flooding duration on Cu desorption (volume ratio and flooding duration study). Desorption of Cu was also characterized by flooding soils four times from seven field sites with a volume ratio of 2 (water) to 1 (soil) (multiple flooding study). Acute toxicity tests were also conducted using overlying waters from the first flooding event to characterize the effects of Cu on the survival of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas), cladocerans (Daphnia magna), amphipods (Hyalella azteca), midges (Chironomus tentans), duckweed (Lemna minor), and Florida apple snails (Pomacea paludosa). Acute tests were also conducted with D. magna exposed to overlying water from the second and third flooding events. Results indicate that dissolved Cu concentrations in overlying water increased with flooding duration and decreased with volume ratio. In the multiple flooding study, initial Cu concentrations in soils ranged from 5 to 223 mg/kg (dw) and were similar to Cu concentration after four flooding events, indicating retention of Cu in soils. Copper desorption was dependent on soil Cu content and soil characteristics. Total Cu concentration in overlying water (Cuw) was a function of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), alkalinity, and soil Cu concentration (Cus): log(Cuw) = 1.2909 + 0.0279 (DOC) + 0.0026 (Cus) − 0.0038 (alkalinity). The model was validated and highly predictive. Most of the desorbed Cu in the water column complexed with organic matter in the soils and accounted for 99% of the total dissolved Cu. Although total dissolved Cu concentrations in overlying water did not significantly decrease with number of flooding events, concentrations of free Cu2+ increased with the number of flooding events, due to a decrease in DOC concentrations. The fraction of bioavailable Cu species (Cu2+, CuOH+, CuCO3) was also less than 1% of the total Cu. Overlying water from the first flooding event was only acutely toxic to the Florida apple snail from one site. However, overlying water from the third flooding of six out of seven soils was acutely toxic to D. magna. The decrease in DOC concentrations and increase in bioavailable Cu2+ species may explain the changes in acute toxicity to D. magna. Results of this study reveal potential for high Cu bioavailability (Cu2+) and toxicity to aquatic biota overtime in inundated agricultural lands acquired under the CERP.

Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) as an indicator for restoration of Everglades Ecosystems

The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) attempts to restore hydrology in the Northern and Southern Estuaries of Florida. Reefs of the Eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica are a dominant feature of the estuaries along the Southwest Florida coast. Oysters are benthic, sessile, filter-feeding organisms that provide ecosystem services by filtering the water column and providing food, shelter and habitat for associated organisms. As such, the species is an excellent sentinel organism for examining the impacts of restoration on estuarine ecosystems. The implementation of CERP attempts to improve: the hydrology and spatial and structural characteristics of oyster reefs, the recruitment and survivorship of C. virginica, and the reef-associated communities of organisms. This project links biological responses and environmental conditions relative to hydrological changes as a means of assessing positive or negative trends in oyster responses and population trends. Using oyster responses, we have developed a communication tool (i.e., Stoplight Report Card) based on CERP performance measures that can distinguish between responses to restoration and natural patterns. The Stoplight Report Card system is a communication tool that uses Monitoring and Assessment Program (MAP) performance measures to grade an estuary's response to changes brought about by anthropogenic input or restoration activities. The Stoplight Report Card consists of both a suitability index score for each organism metric as well as a trend score (− decreasing trend, +/− no change in trend, and + increasing trend). Based on these two measures, a component score (e.g., living density) is calculated by averaging the suitability index score and the trend score. The final index score is obtained by taking the geometric score of each component, which is then translated into a stoplight color for success (green), caution (yellow), or failure (red). Based on the data available for oyster populations and the responses of oysters in the Caloosahatchee Estuary, the system is currently at stage “caution.” This communication tool instantly conveys the status of the indicator and the suitability, while trend curves provide information on progress towards reaching a target. Furthermore, the tool has the advantage of being able to be applied regionally, by species, and collectively, in concert with other species, system-wide.

Sediment copper bioavailability to freshwater snails in south Florida: risk implications for the Everglade snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus)

Many properties being acquired as part of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) are heavily contaminated with copper. Estimated copper bioaccumulation in the Florida apple snail (Pomacea paludosa) has led to the prediction of risk to the Everglade snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus) at some CERP projects. Field study results presented in this paper examine the relationship between copper levels in sediments, snails, and other biota. Copper concentrations in all biota (snails, aquatic vascular plants, and periphyton) were strongly correlated with those in sediments. No correlation with water copper concentrations was evident. Mean copper concentrations in snails ranged from 23.9 mg/kg at the reference site to 732 mg/kg at a high copper site. Calculated biota-sediment accumulation factors (BSAFs) ranged from 36.7 to 7.0 over the range of copper levels in sediments. BSAFs were highest at low copper levels in sediments and declined sharply as copper levels in sediment increased. Risk for the snail kite is discussed in light of the results of this study.

Everglades restoration and water quality challenges in south Florida

This paper provides background information and a brief overview of water quality issues for the rest of the papers in this volume that are concerned with Everglades restoration. The Everglades of Florida have been diminished over 50% of their former extent. The Everglades are no longer a free-flowing wetland ecosystem, but are now subject to a complicated system of water management that is regulated primarily for flood control and consumptive use. Attempts to restore a more natural hydropattern to the remaining undeveloped Everglades are made more difficult by the natural extremes in rainfall, flat landscape, highly porous geology, and inaccessibility of the remaining natural areas. The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) seeks ecosystem restoration by adding water storage capacity, reducing groundwater seepage, improving regulatory delivery and timing of water to avoid environmental damage, and where feasible, improving the quality of water to be used for Everglades restoration. Water quality issues that currently exist for south Florida include eutrophication (especially phosphorus), mercury, and contaminants from agricultural production and the urban environment. Lands once in agricultural production that will be converted back to wetlands or will become reservoirs may contribute to the water quality concerns. Stormwater runoff from managed lands that will be used for restoration purposes will also present water quality challenges. The state continues to seek water quality improvement with a number of pollution reduction programs, and CERP attempts to improve water quality without sacrificing even more natural areas; however providing water quality sufficient for use in recovery of remaining Everglades wetlands and estuaries will remain a daunting challenge.

Effects of salinity on native estuarine fish species in South Florida

Variable and high salinities have been identified as key stressors in Florida Bay. The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) includes water redistribution projects that are intended to restore natural freshwater flows to northeastern Florida Bay. The present salinity regimes in the area, which span from hypo- to hypersaline, will be altered as a result of these actions. This research examined biological performance measures (i.e., growth and survival) of estuarine fish under varying salinity regimes that will occur as a result of the restoration of freshwater flow to the Bay. A series of acute and subchronic studies were conducted to determine the effects of salinity changes on various life stages (embryo/larval, juvenile, adult) of four native estuarine fish (Cyprinodon variegatus, Floridichthys carpio, Poecilia latipinna, and Gambusia holbrooki). Fish were exposed to a range of salinity concentrations (freshwater to hypersaline) based on current salinity profiles in the study areas. Growth (length, weight), abnormalities, and survival were measured. Salinity exposures included both rapid and gradual change events. Results show adverse effects of acute, abrupt salinity changes on fish survival and development due to salinity stress.

Copper desorption in flooded agricultural soils and toxicity to the Florida apple snail ( Pomacea paludosa): Implications in Everglades restoration

Copper (Cu) desorption and toxicity to the Florida apple snail were investigated from soils obtained from agricultural sites acquired under the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan. Copper concentrations in 11 flooded soils ranged from 5 to 234 mg/kg on day 0 and from 6.2 to 204 mg/kg on day 28 (steady-state). The steady-state Cu concentration in overlying water ranged from 9.1 to 308.2 μg/L. In a 28-d growth study, high mortality in snails occurred within 9 to 16 d in two of three soil treatments tested. Growth of apple snails over 28 d was affected by Cu in these two treatments. Tissue Cu concentrations by day 14 were 12–23-fold higher in snails exposed to the three soil treatments compared to controls. The endangered Florida snail kite and its main food source, the Florida apple snail, may be at risk from Cu exposure in these managed agricultural soil–water ecosystems.

Nutrient Mass Flux between Florida Bay and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

There is a net discharge of water and nutrients through Long Key Channel from Florida Bay to the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). There has been speculation that this water and its constituents may be contributing to the loss of coral cover on the Florida Keys Reef tract over the past few decades, as well as speculation that changes in freshwater flow in the upstream Everglades ecosystem associated with the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan may exacerbate this phenomenon. The results of this study indicate that although there is a net export of approximately 3,850 (±404) ton N year−1 and 63 (±7) ton P year−1, the concentrations of these nutrients flowing out of Florida Bay are the same as those flowing in. This implies that no significant nutrient enrichment is occurring in the waters of the FKNMS in the vicinity of Long Key Channel. Because of the effect of restricted southwestward water flow through Florida Bay by shallow banks and small islands, the volume of relatively high-nutrient water from central and eastern portions of the bay exiting through the channel is small compared to the average tidal exchange. Nutrient loading of relatively enriched bay waters is mediated by tidal exchange and mixing with more ambient concentrations of the western Florida Bay and Hawk Channel. System-wide budgets indicate that the contribution of Florida Bay waters to the inorganic nitrogen pool of the Keys coral reef is small relative to offshore inputs.

Estimation of water surface elevations for the Everglades, Florida

The Everglades Depth Estimation Network (EDEN) is an integrated network of real-time water-level monitoring gages and modeling methods that provides scientists and managers with current (2000–present) online water surface and water depth information for the freshwater domain of the Greater Everglades. This integrated system presents data on a 400-m square grid to assist in (1) large-scale field operations; (2) integration of hydrologic and ecologic responses; (3) supporting biological and ecological assessment of the implementation of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP); and (4) assessing trophic-level responses to hydrodynamic changes in the Everglades. This paper investigates the radial basis function multiquadric method of interpolation to obtain a continuous freshwater surface across the entire Everglades using radio-transmitted data from a network of water-level gages managed by the US Geological Survey (USGS), the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD), and the Everglades National Park (ENP). Since the hydrological connection is interrupted by canals and levees across the study area, boundary conditions were simulated by linearly interpolating along those features and integrating the results together with the data from marsh stations to obtain a continuous water surface through multiquadric interpolation. The absolute cross-validation errors greater than 5 cm correlate well with the local outliers and the minimum distance between the closest stations within 2000-m radius, but seem to be independent of vegetation or season.

A HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX MODEL FOR THE EASTERN OYSTER (CRASSOSTREA VIRGINICA), A TOOL FOR RESTORATION OF THE CALOOSAHATCHEE ESTUARY, FLORIDA

A tool in the form of a habitat suitability index model (HSI) for the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, was adapted to evaluate and compare the effects of alternative restoration plans in southwest Florida. A component of a large forecasting model, this tool simulates system response by examining the impact of freshwater inputs into the system. The eastern oyster is a good indicator species for modeling because of its sedentary nature and its susceptibility to natural and artificial changes. In addition, oysters form a complex three-dimensional reef structure, which provides habitat and food for numerous species of fish and invertebrates. The model focuses on salinity, temperature, depth, substrate, and high flow frequency as the particular requirements to determine habitat suitability for the eastern oyster. A geographic information system (GIS) incorporates the oyster HSI model, which includes larval and adult components, to determine responses spatially and temporally to facilitate the decision making process. This paper evaluates four hydrologic and land use scenarios for the C-43 West Basin Reservoir Project. Model results indicate that the Preferred Flow scenario and the future conditions with the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan have higher HSI values then either the existing conditions or the future without the Comprehensive Everglades Plan.

Use of Amphibians as Indicators of Ecosystem Restoration Success

Circular 1484, a 5-page illustrated document by Ken G. Rice, Frank J. Mazzotti, and J. Hardin Waddle, describes a research program studying the use of amphibians as ecosystem restoration indicators to be used for adaptive assessment of the projects in the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP). Includes references. Published by the UF Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, February 2007. CIR 1484/UW233: Use of Amphibians as Indicators of Ecosystem Restoration Success (ufl.edu)

A review of littoral vegetation, fisheries, and wildlife responses to hydrologic variation at Lake Okeechobee

ABSTRACT Variation in hydrologic regimes in subtropical lakes and wetlands strongly influences biodiversity and value to human users. Lake Okeechobee, Florida, has a 450-km2 littoral landscape that supports a diverse assemblage of aquatic vegetation that provides critical habitat for fish and wildlife. Water level is one of the primary factors affecting the composition of aquatic vegetation and its associated faunal assemblages at Lake Okeechobee. We summarized published literature regarding the effects of water-level variation on subtropical wetland and littoral plants, as well as the fish and other biota supported by those plant communities, with an emphasis on shallow lakes and wetlands occurring at latitudes generally similar to Lake Okeechobee. The objective of this study was to enhance the information base that supports the CERP (Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan) hydrologic performance goals for this large lake ecosystem. Our results demonstrate that high water/prolonged flooding at lake st...

Potential Natural Environments Based on Pedological Properties in the Coastal Conurbation of Subtropical Southeast Florida

Much of the coastal southeast Florida Peninsula is heavily urbanized, and many native environments have been destroyed or severely affected by urbanization. In an attempt to reconstruct potential natural environments, soil properties were used as a basis for recognizing prior landscapes. Pedological associations were adopted because they provided landscape features that were least modified by urbanization and they could be used as a unifying basis for categorization of native coastal environments. A geographic information system analysis ring was used for querying coverages for soil distribution patterns, vegetation, hydrology (drainage), topography, and geology. By simultaneously generalizing and recombining soil survey data, land use cover types, topography, and hydrology, it was possible to identify recurring patterns of soils, landforms, and vegetation. Results of this analysis produced 13 land systems with 25 subunits that included various types of lakebeds, tree islands, marshes, prairies, sloughs, sandplains, glades, marshlands, lagoons, estuaries, and beaches. The resulting map for potential natural environments in Palm Beach and Broward Counties complements conceptual ecological models for the Greater Florida Everglades Ecosystem, developed for the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan. The Australian land systems approach, as applied in this study, provides insight into coastal environments that lie outside of ecological models for mostly protected areas inland.

Everglades restoration projects slow to start

There have been significant delays in several Florida Everglades restoration construction projects, although some progress has been made in planning and coordinating the overall restoration program in developing the science to support and monitor the program. That is according to a 25 September report from a committee of the National Research Council of the U.S. National Academies. This is the first biennial report to be released by the Committee on Independent Scientific Review of Everglades Restoration, which is monitoring the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP).The CERR established in 1999 to achieve ecological restoration of what remains of the Everglades, includes more than 40 major projects and is expected to cost more than US$10 billion over more than 30 years.