Compound Meters Research Articles

Twirling Triplets: The Qualia of Rotation and Musical Rhythm

While musicologists have long noted that triplet rhythms evoke sensations of rotation in listeners, no theory has been proposed to account for this apparent association. To investigate this phenomenon, 33 excerpts of “spinning, rotating, twirling, or swirling” music were crowd-sourced from an online discussion forum. Analysis revealed a prominence of fast, repeated, isochronous patterns using stepwise pitch movement, with significantly more compound meters than generally found in Western music. Inspired by ecological acoustics, an Ecological Theory of Rotating Sounds (ETRoS) is proposed to explain these associations. The theory maps patterns of loudness fluctuations to trajectories of rotating sound sources. Two experiments tested the theory. In Experiment A, listeners rated how much binary, ternary, quaternary, and quinary figures (of 2–5 notes) evoked sensations of rotation. Experiment B used a two-alternative forced-choice paradigm pitting ecological quaternary stimuli (strong-medium-weak-medium) against unecological stimuli with permuted stress values more typical of Western music (strong-weak-medium-weak). Results indicate that perceived rotation increases with tempo and is poorly evoked by binary rhythms. Loudness patterns consistent with rotating trajectories were perceived as more rotating than unecological patterns—but only when pitch was also moving. Altogether, moderate support is provided for an acoustic-ecological account of rotating sounds.

Beat Hierarchy and Beat Patterns—From Aksak to Composite Meter

In his study of Steve Reich’s phase–shifting music, Richard Cohn points to a specific analytical challenge that transcends the repertoire at hand: “Given the relative poverty of our rhythmic terminology, the challenge for the theorist is to discover a means to characterize this material that is not only descriptively adequate, but also allows for exploration of its properties, its behavior under transformation, and its relations to other potential material” (1992, 149).1 This essay responds to Cohn’s call to action, singling out one of the many under–determined modes of rhythmic continuity in post–tonal music—(asymmetrical) composite meters. It rehearses a wide– ranging application of a new conceptual framework that can be used in accounting for the frequency and formal salience of composite meters in twentieth–century repertoire. Through analysis of select musical examples, I relate composite asymmetrical meters to compound and aksak meters, showing how certain types of “asymmetrical” meter exemplify non–isochronous duple and triple meters and, further, how composite meters combine two or more different metric units into a recurring whole (e.g., isochronous duple followed by non–isochronous triple meter). Along the way, I introduce a number of new concepts (meta–measures, duplication) and a new form of graphic representation (the time signature map). Isochronicity refers to the durational equality of temporal units such as beats and beat groups. Isochronous beats cohere into symmetrical meters, such as symmetrical duple meter, or 2/4, whereas non–isochronous beats give rise to asymmetrical meters. The examples in this essay are chosen because they outline similar metric patterns, rather than for their exclusivity—a wealth of examples in the twentieth–century repertoire pursue similar metric patterns. An analytical approach to this repertory can take a perceptual or a formal stance but will likely suffer from a lack of a working methodology because approaches to rhythmic and metric analysis are not standardized and are often incompatible with one another. In lieu of following an established analytical methodology for this repertoire or a widely accepted theoretical framework for understanding beat hierarchy in asymmetrical meters, I consider various approaches and develop a performer–sensitive method of analysis. While the “material” Cohn singles out in Reich’s phasing works represents a repeated pattern of eight or twelve pulses (hence the beat–class set), the material I refer to is more generally derived from the organization of the rhythmic parameter and is not restricted to twelve–pulse cycles. ↵

Improve Accuracy With Proper Water Meter Installation

This article discusses the importance of proper water meter installation, focusing on the following types of meters: positive‐displacement and volumetric meters; inferential or velocity‐type meters; Woltmann or turbine‐type meters; and, compound meters.

Sizing and Selecting Modern Water Meters

This article discusses displacement, turbine (turbo), and compound meters and describes the meter selection process. Tables provide information on AWWA turbine meter standards for customer service (Class I: vertical shaft and low‐velocity horizontal type meters and Class II: in‐line or high‐velocity type meters) and recommended applications for meters by type and size.

Computer-Baesed Recognition of Perceptual Patterns and Learning Styles in Rhythmic Dictation Exercises

During the 1978-79 academic year, sixteen freshman music majors participated in an experiment in which their response data were saved as they worked through 24 units of rhythmic dictation exercises in the University of Delaware's GUIDO® system. Analysis of the student data base showed perceptual patterns and learning styles common to exercises in both simple and compound meters. First, it was found that basic undotted, nonduplet, nontriplet notes are confused exclusively with themselves and never with dotted notes, duplets, or triplets. The same exclusive confusion pattern is seen for dotted notes, duplets, and triplets, except that they are also confused with their unmodified basic counterparts. By varying the time signatures used in the experiment, it was found that significantly more exercises are correctly answered in simple meter when a four is on the bottom, and the same pattern was found when an eight is on the bottom in compound meter. Randomly varying the pitch of the monotone stimulus between c and c2 had no effect on student achievement. As the level of difficulty increased in the 24 units, so did the average student response time and the number of times students asked for the stimulus to be replayed. The average speed at which students played the stimulus also decreased. Students who used high average dictation speeds tended to request fewer repetitions of the stimulus, as did students who used the metronome. However, neither speed of dictation, use of the metronome, nor number of repetitions had a high correlation with student achievement.

Certification Corner

Questions on head loss, treatment process monitoring, water sampling frequency, Maximum Contaminant Levels, compound meters, chloramine formation, presedimentation, venturi tubes, and problems caused by algae are included in this portion of “Certification Corner.”

Compound Meters in the Poetry of Marina Cvetaeva

Compound Meters in the Poetry of Marina Cvetaeva

Meter Sizing and Selection

This article discusses the importance of proper meter sizing along with the best possible customer service to provide accurate metering and minimum maintenance costs. The article provides a formula for calculating probable maximum water demand in a multiple family dwelling developed from a study of demand rates and meter sizes in more than 100 apartment buildings. Specific topics discussed include: proper sizing of service lines, meter selection and the reduction of head loss in small displacement‐type meters; appropriate use of compound meters; continuous operation of variable speed pumps; and, propeller‐type meters for metering filter plan flows and distribution mains.

CHAPTER 7 – AWWA M8: Customer Meters AWWA Distribution Manual

A training course in water distribution has been prepared under the supervision of AWWA Committee 4620 M‐Education. This is the last of six installments (see April, p. 458; June, p. 790; July, p. 907; August, p. 1174; October, p. 1313). This article presents Chapter 7, Customer Meters, and covers the following topics: positive‐displacement meters; current meters; proportional meters; compound meters; characteristic curves; applications of various meter types; sizing of meters; and, testing and maintenance of meters.

Sizing of Water Meters

Sizing a meter requires that the interests of both the customer and the supplier be equally considered. Determination of demand is predictable to a degree commensurate with the completeness of information about the service required. Selection of the correct type and size of meter for a demand of known type and magnitude can be made a matter of routine. Many of the problems of sizing meters can be eliminated by the adoption of general rules or policies governing the use of different types of meters. At Houston, the use of displacement meters in only the small sizes and the use of compound meters in all the larger sizes have, by routine policy, reduced the number of instances when meters have been either overworked, with consequent excessive wear, or oversized with resulting under‐registration.

Milwaukee Experience with Compound Meters

Milwaukee's experience with compound meters dates from May, 1912, when the Meter Department installed, for service test, a 4-inch compound meter of a reliable make, on the service of the meter repair shop. This service is used solely for the testing apparatus and one hydraulic sidewalk lift. The stream flows on this line are from 3 inches to y^-inch. On April 1, 1920, with a total registration of 3,455,022 cubic feet on the dial of the current section of the meter, and 689,652 cubic feet on the dial of the disc section, this meter was subjected to a weight test and the following results were obtained. On the 2-inch stream size (the largest permissible with present arrangement of testing apparatus) the current section meter showed an accuracy of 100.1 per cent and on the f -inch stream 96.6 per cent, while on the disc section operation the percentage of accuracy on the J-inch stream was 100.8, on the f-inch stream 99.2, on the r^-inch stream 99.2, and on the y^-inch stream 84.4. In this meter there is a point of alternation or change over of stream flow through the current and disc section at about the f -inch stream. That is, at this point the valve is in a state of suspension or leakage and permits the diversion of a stream through each section too small for accurate registration on either. This condition, however, is not of very great concern, as it is not very probable that in actual service use the valve would remain in this suspended position for any period, due to the fluctuation of pressure and variation in consumption. With a view to determining the relative accuracy of the compound type and the disc type of meters, a test was conducted for a period of one week by installing a 3-inch bronze case meter on the line in conjunction with the 4-inch compound, the compound meter being a sub-meter to the disc meter. The disc meter is one which

Philadelphia Experience with Compound Meters

Journal AWWAVolume 7, Issue 6 p. 859-861 Article Philadelphia Experience with Compound Meters† Seth M. Van Loan, Seth M. Van LoanGeneral Superintendent, Bureau of Water, Philadelphia.Search for more papers by this author Seth M. Van Loan, Seth M. Van LoanGeneral Superintendent, Bureau of Water, Philadelphia.Search for more papers by this author First published: 01 November 1920 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1920.tb12100.x †Presented at the Montreal Convention, June 24, 1920. Discussion is invited and should be sent to the Editor. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume7, Issue6November 1920Pages 859-861 RelatedInformation

Hartford Experience with Compound Meters

Journal AWWAVolume 7, Issue 6 p. 855-858 Article Hartford Experience with Compound Meters† J. E. Garratt, J. E. GarrattOffice Engineer, Board of Water Commissioners, Hartford, Conn.Search for more papers by this author J. E. Garratt, J. E. GarrattOffice Engineer, Board of Water Commissioners, Hartford, Conn.Search for more papers by this author First published: 01 November 1920 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1920.tb12099.x †Presented at the Montreal Convention, June 24, 1920. Discussion is desired and should be sent to the Editor. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Volume7, Issue6November 1920Pages 855-858 RelatedInformation

New Orleans Experience with Compound Meters

Journal AWWAVolume 7, Issue 6 p. 862-864 Article New Orleans Experience with Compound Meters† George G. Earl, George G. EarlGeneral Superintendent, Sewerage and Water Board, New Orleans.Search for more papers by this author George G. Earl, George G. EarlGeneral Superintendent, Sewerage and Water Board, New Orleans.Search for more papers by this author First published: 01 November 1920 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1920.tb12101.x †Presented at the Montreal Convention, June 24, 1920. Discussion is invited and should be sent to the Editor. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume7, Issue6November 1920Pages 862-864 RelatedInformation

Notes on Utility and Performance of Compound Meters

Journal AWWAVolume 6, Issue 2 p. 190-193 Article Notes on Utility and Performance of Compound Meters† Fred B. Nelson, Fred B. NelsonSearch for more papers by this author Fred B. Nelson, Fred B. NelsonSearch for more papers by this author First published: 01 June 1919 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1919.tb13227.x †Read before the New York Section on February 19, 1919. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Volume6, Issue2June 1919Pages 190-193 RelatedInformation