Compositional Fluency Research Articles

The contributions of executive functioning to handwritten and keyboarded compositions in Year 2 children

Writing is a multifaceted skill, recruiting varied cognitive processes that involve working memory, attention shifting and inhibition, also known as executive functioning (EF). Despite emerging research examining associations between EF and handwritten composition, the mediating role of transcription skills on the relation between EF and text composition remains underexplored. Even less is understood about the nature of these potential mediation mechanisms in keyboard-based text composing, a writing modality that is becoming pervasive during the first years of schooling. This study investigated whether the automaticity of inscription skills (handwriting and keyboarding) and spelling mediate the relation between children’s EF and text composition across two modes (paper and keyboard-based text composing) on a sample of 544 Year 2 Australian children. Assessments of EF, inscription skills, spelling, and text composition were measured concurrently. Indirect pathways were tested via structural equation modelling. Findings indicated that across text composition modes, handwriting automaticity, keyboarding automaticity and spelling mediated the relationship between children’s EF and writing composition (i.e., compositional fluency and quality). The findings of this study extend current understanding of associations between cognitive processes and text composition in the junior years by examining keyboard-based text composing.

The keys of keyboard-based writing: Student and classroom-level predictors of keyboard-based writing in early primary

In today’s fast-paced digital world, keyboard-based writing has become a key component of daily communication, with students engaging in keyboarding early in their school trajectories. Nonetheless, there’s a lack of systematic studies investigating individual-level factors impacting keyboard-based writing and relationships with the writing instruction typically provided in primary school settings. Using multilevel modelling the current study examined student-level predictors of keyboard-based writing quality and fluency in Year 2 Australian children (N = 544), including keyboarding automaticity, spelling, reading skills, executive functioning, writing attitudes, gender; and classroom-level (N = 47) variables predicting keyboard-based writing, such as teachers’ preparation and instructional practices for writing. Results revealed that keyboarding automaticity, spelling, word reading, general attitudes toward writing, and gender were uniquely related to compositional quality. Keyboarding automaticity, word reading, and gender were also uniquely related to compositional fluency. Results also showed that female students outperformed their male peers in keyboarding automaticity, compositional quality and fluency, but also on attitudes toward writing and reading comprehension. For classroom-level factors, findings showed time teaching keyboarding positively related to compositional fluency and time teaching handwriting negatively related to compositional quality and fluency. Interactions were also found between gender and time teaching keyboarding, teaching revision and planning strategies, and specific student-level factors. The novel findings from this study suggest that, to support Year 2 students’ keyboard-based writing, attention must be placed on multiple components predicting students’ writing performance.

The dimensions of written expression: Language group and gender differences

This study compared the written expression of 159 English-speaking first (L1) and second language (L2) learners (Mage = 9; 7 years, SD = 3.63 months) in England The L1 learners outperformed their L2 peers on the four dimensions of written expression, namely holistic quality, written vocabulary, organisational quality, and compositional fluency. Girls also outperformed boys on all dimensions, except for organisation. The interaction between language group and gender was nonsignificant, but there was a trend for the language group differences to be larger for boys. Vocabulary, organisation, and compositional fluency made unique contributions to holistic quality in both language groups and the strength of these relations were relatively comparable across the L1 and L2 groups. Educational implications are discussed.

Writing fluency and quality in kindergarten and first grade: The role of attention, reading, transcription, and oral language.

In the present study, we examined the influence of kindergarten component skills on writing outcomes, both concurrently and longitudinally to first grade. Using data from 265 students, we investigated a model of writing development including attention regulation along with students' reading, spelling, handwriting fluency, and oral language component skills. Results from structural equation modeling demonstrated that a model including attention was better fitting than a model with only language and literacy factors. Attention, a higher-order literacy factor related to reading and spelling proficiency, and automaticity in letter-writing were uniquely and positively related to compositional fluency in kindergarten. Attention and higher-order literacy factor were predictive of both composition quality and fluency in first grade, while oral language showed unique relations with first grade writing quality. Implications for writing development and instruction are discussed.

Teaching children with dyslexia to spell in a reading-writers’ workshop

To identify effective treatment for both the spelling and word decoding problems in dyslexia, 24 students with dyslexia in grades 4 to 9 were randomly assigned to treatments A (n=12) or B (n=12) in an after-school reading-writers' workshop at the university (thirty 1-h sessions twice a week over 5 months). First, both groups received step 1 treatment of grapheme-phoneme correspondences (gpc) for oral reading. At step 2, treatment A received gpc training for both oral reading and spelling, and treatment B received gpc training for oral reading and phonological awareness. At step 3, treatment A received orthographic spelling strategy and rapid accelerated reading program (RAP) training, and treatment B continued step 2 training. At step 4, treatment A received morphological strategies and RAP training, and treatment B received orthographic spelling strategy training. Each treatment also had the same integrated reading-writing activities, which many school assignments require. Both groups improved significantly in automatic letter writing, spelling real words, compositional fluency, and oral reading (decoding) rate. Treatment A significantly outperformed treatment B in decoding rate after step 3 orthographic training, which in turn uniquely predicted spelling real words. Letter processing rate increased during step 3 RAP training and correlated significantly with two silent reading fluency measures. Adding orthographic strategies with "working memory in mind" to phonics helps students with dyslexia spell and read English words.

Writing development in four genres from grades three to seven: syntactic complexity and genre differentiation

Two measures of syntactic complexity, clauses per T-unit and words per clause, were used to examine differences among four genres of text—narrative, descriptive, compare/contrast, and persuasive—written by the same two cohorts (83 students in grades three and five and 96 students in grades five and seven) on two occasions 2 years apart as part of a larger longitudinal study. For clauses per T-unit, a measure of subordination, significant differences were found between persuasive essays, which had more subordinate clauses, and the other three genres. For words per clause, an indicator of the denser syntax of the academic register, significant differences were found between descriptive texts, which had more words per clause than the persuasive essays, which did not differ from the compare/contrast texts. Over the grade levels studied, the measures of syntactic complexity did not increase in their differentiation among the four genres. The two measures of syntactic complexity were negatively correlated, especially for the persuasive essays. For text length, which is thought to reflect compositional fluency, grade, genre, and grade × genre effects were significant for both cohorts. Post hoc analyses found few examples of the syntax-level structures characteristic of the academic register. These findings suggest that although students could produce each kind of genre, their ability to do so may have been compromised by their limited knowledge of the syntactic structures required to achieve text-level genre goals. Researchers and educators should consider the syntactic- and text-level requirements for different school-based genres in designing and evaluating writing instruction.

Student- and instruction-level predictors of narrative writing in third-grade students

This study examined the student-level and instruction-level predictors of narrative writing fluency and quality. Participants included 120 third-grade students from 13 classrooms. Student predictors included measures of reading, handwriting, spelling, IQ, grammatical understanding, and gender. Instructional predictors focused on the amount of time allocated to teaching basic writing skills and planning skills. Significant predictors of compositional fluency included gender, advanced planning ability, and handwriting fluency, while significant predictors of compositional quality included gender, compositional fluency, Full-scale IQ, word reading ability, and grammatical understanding. There were no main effects of instructional variables; however there were two student by instruction interactions. Implications of the study highlight the importance of student characteristics in writing achievement, as well as considering the need for differential instruction based on student needs.

Writing Prompts: The Role of Various Priming Conditions on the Compositional Fluency of Developing Writers

This study addressed two questions related to the writing of second graders (n=195). The first examined the effects of writing prompts on the compositional fluency of second-grade students. The second considered whether these effects are different based on spelling achievement and handwriting fluency. Students wrote six narratives in response to writing prompts presented in different ways (copying, dictation, discussion, discussion-copying, discussion-dictation, and topic). An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with repeated measures showed that priming condition and writing occasion were significant effects. Interactions were found between priming condition, occasion, and each of the covariates (handwriting fluency and spelling achievement). Analysis of the sample based on the covariates revealed differential effects for the slowest and fastest writers and poorest and best spellers.

Teaching spelling and composition alone and together: Implications for the simple view of writing.

Third graders with low compositional fluency (N = 96) were randomly assigned to 4 time-equated treatments in an instructional experiment (24 lessons over 4 months): spelling (alphabetic principle plus its alternations), composing (reflective discussion plus teacher scaffolding), combined spelling (alphabetic principle) plus composing (teacher scaffolding), and treated control (writing practice, no instruction). All treatments increased compositional fluency. Spelling and combined spelling plus composing were most effective for word-specific spelling (taught words). Teaching alternations improved phonological decoding and transferred to spelling in composing. Composing and combined spelling plus composing were most effective for persuasive essay writing. Only combined spelling plus composing increased both spelling and composing. Results are related to the simple view of writing that integrates diverse theoretical traditions and instructional practices.

Dyslexia the Invisible, Treatable Disorder: the Story of Einstein's Ninja Turtles

In this longitudinal, multiple case study, I describe and compare the early development, instructional history, repeated administrations of a test battery, and response to instructional intervention for seven boys (in third to fifth grade at time of intervention), who were brain imaged prior to intervention and found to differ from controls in brain chemical activation during a phonological task. The instructional intervention was phonologically driven reading instruction in a science/reading workshop. At follow-up, phonological skills (phonological manipulation, phonological memory, and phonological decoding) had improved compared to initial assessment, but the boys were better at silent reading comprehension than oral reading, and had rate impairments and considerable difficulties with writing skills (handwriting automaticity, spelling, and speed of composing). Based on recent research on the genetic phenotype (language markers) and on early intervention, a case is made that dyslexia should be diagnosed early in schooling, on the basis of markers for deficient language processes and response to early intervention, so that appropriate instruction can be instituted early and continued throughout schooling as long as necessary. Dyslexia is a developmental disorder that manifests in different ways at different developmental stages, initially as difficulty in learning letters and letter-sound correspondence, next in learning to read words accurately, and finally in impaired reading rate and written expression skills (handwriting automaticity, spelling, and compositional fluency).

Is handwriting causally related to learning to write? Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers.

The contribution of handwriting to learning to write was examined in an experimental training study involving beginning writers with and without an identified disability. First-grade children experiencing handwriting and writing difficulties participated in 27 fifteen-min sessions designed to improve the accuracy and fluency of their handwriting. In comparison to their peers in a contact control condition receiving instruction in phonological awareness, students in the handwriting condition made greater gains in handwriting as well as compositional fluency immediately following instruction and 6 months later. The effects of instruction were similar for students with and without an identified disability. These findings indicate that handwriting is causally related to writing and that explicit and supplemental handwriting instruction is an important element in preventing writing difficulties in the primary grades.

A Comparison of Children's Handwriting Under Traditional vs. Whole Language Instruction

The current study compared the speed and legibility of handwriting produced by children exposed to either traditional instruction (TI) or whole-language instruction (WLI) in an attempt to determine whether children who received traditional, intensive classroom instruction in handwriting produce more legible andfaster handwriting. Forty-four TI students in lower (4 & 5) and upper (7 & 8) grades were matched with WLI students on the basis of chronological age, sex, grade, and dominant hand. All participants provided three writing samples exemplifying their best cursive writing, their usual cursive writing, and their handwriting under the pressure of speed. Samples were codedfor legibility using the Test of Legible Handwriting (Larsen & Hammill, 1989), and a total word count was computedfor speeded samples. The majorfindings showed that the TI children produced more legible handwriting than did WLI students, were able to write significantly more words under time pressure, and that these differences between the groups did not diminish with increased grade/age. The practical implications of the results are discussed, particularly the findings related to speed of transcription. Specifically noted in the discussion is the relationship between the automaticity of writing and compositional fluency that has emerged in recent research.

The Role of Text Production Skills in Writing Development: A Special Issue - I

One way to gain an understanding of how difficulties with text production skills, such as handwriting and spelling, can interfere with the process of composing, is to imagine that you were just asked to write something using a Chinese typewriter. This is the most difficult typewriter in the world to use, as it has 5,850 characters (Hendrickson, 1994). As you diligently search for the characters needed to produce the next word in your masterpiece, some of the ideas and plans you just generated may be forgotten, as the attentional requirements for turning words into print are likely to tax the capacity of your working memory. Allocating attention to planning the next unit of text or sharpening your conceptualization of the current segment of text while simultaneously translating words into print is also likely to be difficult, as the search for the correct characters will undoubtebly consume most of your attentional resources. Even if you were an expert with a Chinese typewriter, cruising along at the dizzying speed of 11 words a minute, you will probably find that this is not fast enough to keep up with your thoughts, causing you to forget ideas, as they slip from working memory. Fortunately, most of us will never experience the travails of a Chinese typewriter. We have, however, at one time or another, experienced frustration from our own limitations in turning words into print. Most likely, this involved the irrevocable loss of some part of an idea as we were unable to write all of our thoughts down fast enough. Nevertheless, most of us have reached a point where our spelling is good enough and our handwriting fast enough so that interference from text production skills is minimal. For many children with learning disabilities (LD) this is not the case, as their handwriting is slow and uneven and they make an inordinate number of spelling miscues when writing (Fulk & Stormont-Spurgin, 1995; Graham & Weintraub, 1996). Eliminating these mechanical difficulties through the use of dictation, however, can improve the writing of students with LD, resulting in text that is longer (MacArthur & Graham, 1987) and qualitatively better (Graham, 1990; MacArthur & Graham, 1987). The difficulties with text production skills that many children with LD experience may affect not only how they write (as the example with the Chinese typewriter illustrates), but the pace and course of their writing development as well. According to McCutchen (1996), the physical act of transcribing text is so demanding for you g writers that they develop an approach to writing (the knowledge telling approach) that minimizes the use of other writing processes, such as planning, because they also exert considerable processing demands. Berninger, Mizokawa, and Bragg (1991) furth r indicate that difficulties acquiring text production skills may lead children to avoid writing and develop a mind set that they cannot write, resulting in arrested writing development. Although additional research is needed to validate mor fully the claims noted above, the outcomes from several recent investigations provide strong support for the critical role of text production skills in writing development. For example, Graham, Berninger, Abbott, Abbott, and Whitaker (1997) found that individual differences in handwriting and spelling accounted for a considerable proportion of the variance in children's wr ting. These two mechanical skills accounted for 66% and 41% of the variance in compositional fluency at the primary and intermediate grades, and 25% and 42% of the variance in compositional quality at these same grade levels, respectively. Even more importantly, explicitly teaching handwriting or spelling to children who have difficulty acquiring these skills resulted in improved writing performance (Berninger, Vaughn, Abbott, Abbott, Brooks, Reed, & Graham, 1998; Berninger, Vaughn, Abbott, Brooks, Abbott, Rogan, Reed, & Graham, 1997). Unfortunately, the effects of text production difficulties extend beyond the act of writing to include perceptions of competence. Probably no one knows this

Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers: Transfer from handwriting to composition.

Almost 700 children were screened to identify 144 1st graders at risk for handwriting problems who were randomly assigned to 1 of 6 treatment conditions. Treatment was delivered to groups of 3 that met twice a week in 20-min sessions until they completed 24 lessons. Five groups received 10 min of different kinds of handwriting instruction. The contact control group received 10 min of phonological awareness training. All 6 groups composed and shared their writing for 10 min. Converging evidence across multiple measures showed that combining numbered arrows and memory retrieval was the most effective treatment for improving both handwriting and compositional fluency (composing with time limits). Thus instruction aimed at improving transcription transfers to improved text generation in beginning writers.

Role of mechanics in composing of elementary school students: A new methodological approach.

The authors used multiple-group structural equation modeling to analyze structural relationships between latent factors underlying separate measures of handwriting, spelling, and composing in Grades 1-6. For compositional fluency, the paths from both handwriting and spelling were significant in the primary grades, but only the path from handwriting was significant in the intermediate grades. For compositional quality, only the path from handwriting was significant at the primary and intermediate grades. The contribution of spelling to compositional quality was indirect through its correlation with handwriting. Handwriting and spelling accounted for a sizable proportion of the variance in compositional fluency (41% to 66%) and compositional quality (25% to 42%). These findings show that the mechanical skills of writing may exert constraints on amount and quality of composing. Theoretical and educational implications of the findings are discussed.

Assessment of planning, translating, and revising in junior high writers

This article serves three functions: (a) to provide school psychologists with an overview of what is currently known about the cognitive skills in writing, (b) to report the results of a theory-driven experiment that yielded means and standard deviations for planning, translating, and reviewing/revising which school psychologists could use in group screening or individual psychoeducational assessment, and (c) to review the literature on interventions for deficits in cognitive processes related to writing. The importance of using gender norms in writing assessment is emphasized. Significant gender differences were found in planning, translating, and revising, but they disappeared for quality of translating and revising at the text level when number of words, an index of compositional fluency, was used as a covariate. Boys were inferior to girls in compositional fluency (rate of producing text) but not compositional quality (based on content and text organization).

Gender differences in orthographic, verbal, and compositional fluency: Implications for assessing writing disabilities in primary grade children

Measures of oral verbal fluency (word finding), written orthographic fluency (alphabet task), and written composition (narrative and oral expository) were administered to 300 children (50 girls and 50 boys each in the first, second, and third grades). Both oral verbal fluency and written orthographic fluency correlated significantly with the number of words (fluency) and the number of clauses (microorganization) in the compositions, but boys performed significantly better than girls on oral verbal fluency and girls performed significantly better than boys on written orthographic fluency. Girls consistently outperformed boys on the number of words and the number of clauses produced in narrative and expository composition. Thus, in beginning writing, orthographic fluency may be relatively more important than verbal fluency and boys may be at greater risk for writing disabilities. However, more boys were identified as having a disability in composition when absolute criteria (lowest 5% of normal distribution) were used, but about the same number of boys and girls were identified as having a disability in composition when relative criteria (significant discrepancy between Verbal IQ and compositional skill, based on the Mahalanobis statistic) were used. School psychologists are encouraged to use standardized measures of othographic, verbal, and compositional fluency to identify primary grade children needing early intervention to prevent more severe writing disabilities.