Composite Stellar Populations Research Articles

The miniJPAS survey: Evolution of luminosity and stellar mass functions of galaxies up to z~0.7

We aim to develop a robust methodology for constraining the luminosity and stellar mass functions (LMFs) of galaxies by solely using photometric measurements from multi-filter imaging surveys. We test the potential of these techniques for determining the evolution of these functions up to $z 0.7$ in the Javalambre Physics of the Accelerating Universe Astrophysical Survey (J-PAS), which will image thousands of square degrees in the northern hemisphere with an unprecedented photometric system that includes $54$ narrow band filters. As J-PAS is still an ongoing survey, we used the miniJPAS dataset (a stripe of $1$ deg$^2$ dictated according to the J-PAS strategy) for determining the LMFs of galaxies at $0.05 z 0.7$. Stellar mass and $B$-band luminosity for each of the miniJPAS galaxies are constrained using an updated version of our fitting code for spectral energy distribution, MUlti-Filter FITting (MUFFIT), whose values are based on non-parametric composite stellar population models and the probability distribution functions of the miniJPAS photometric redshifts. Galaxies are classified according to their star formation activity through the stellar mass versus rest-frame colour diagram corrected for extinction (MCDE) and we assign a probability to each source of being a quiescent or star-forming galaxy. Different stellar mass and luminosity completeness limits are set and parametrised as a function of redshift, for setting the limitations of our flux-limited sample ($r_ SDSS 22$) for the determination of the miniJPAS LMFs. The miniJPAS LMFs are parametrised according to Schechter-like functions via a novel maximum likelihood method accounting for uncertainties, degeneracies, probabilities, completeness, and priors. Overall, our results point to a smooth evolution with redshift ($0.05 z 0.7$) of the miniJPAS LMFs, which is in agreement with previous studies. The LMF evolution of star-forming galaxies mainly involve the bright and massive ends of these functions, whereas the LMFs of quiescent galaxies also exhibit a non-negligible evolution in their faint and less massive ends. The cosmic evolution of the global $B$-band luminosity density decreases by $ 0.1$ dex from $z=0.7$ to $0.05$; whereas for quiescent galaxies, this quantity roughly remains constant. In contrast, the stellar mass density increases by $ dex in the same redshift range, where the evolution is mainly driven by quiescent galaxies, owing to an overall increase in the number of this type of galaxy. In turn, this covers the majority and most massive galaxies, namely, $60$--$100$<!PCT!> of galaxies at $ (M_

A sample of dust attenuation laws for Dark Energy Survey supernova host galaxies

Context. Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) are useful distance indicators in cosmology, provided their luminosity is standardized by applying empirical corrections based on light-curve properties. One factor behind these corrections is dust extinction, which is accounted for in the color–luminosity relation of the standardization. This relation is usually assumed to be universal, which can potentially introduce systematics into the standardization. The “mass step” observed for SN Ia Hubble residuals has been suggested as one such systematic. Aims. We seek to obtain a more complete view of dust attenuation properties for a sample of 162 SN Ia host galaxies and to probe their link to the mass step. Methods. We inferred attenuation laws toward hosts from both global and local (4 kpc) Dark Energy Survey photometry and composite stellar population model fits. Results. We recovered a relation between the optical depth and the attenuation slope, best explained by differing star-to-dust geometry for different galaxy orientations, which is significantly different from the optical depth and extinction slope relation observed directly for SNe. We obtain a large variation of attenuation slopes and confirm these change with host properties, such as the stellar mass and age, meaning a universal SN Ia correction should ideally not be assumed. Analyzing the cosmological standardization, we find evidence for a mass step and a two-dimensional “dust step”, both more pronounced for red SNe. Although comparable, the two steps are not found to be completely analogous. Conclusions. We conclude that host galaxy dust data cannot fully account for the mass step, using either an alternative SN standardization with extinction proxied by host attenuation or a dust-step approach.

First Light and Reionization Epoch Simulations (flares) – XIV. The Balmer/4000 Å breaks of distant galaxies

ABSTRACT With the successful launch and commissioning of JWST we are now able to routinely spectroscopically probe the rest-frame optical emission of galaxies at z > 6 for the first time. Among the most useful spectral diagnostics used in the optical is the Balmer/4000 Å break; this is, in principle, a diagnostic of the mean ages of composite stellar populations. However, the Balmer break is also sensitive to the shape of the star formation history, the stellar (and gas) metallicity, the presence of nebular continuum emission, and dust attenuation. In this work, we explore the origin of the Balmer/4000 Å break using the synthesizer synthetic observations package. We then make predictions of the Balmer/4000 Å break using the First Light and Reionization Epoch Simulations at 5 < z < 10. We find that the average break strength weakly correlates with stellar mass and rest-frame far-ultraviolet luminosity, but that this is predominantly driven by dust attenuation. We also find that break strength provides a weak diagnostic of the age but performs better as a means to constrain star formation and stellar mass, alongside the ultraviolet and optical luminosity, respectively.

Revisiting the Properties of X-Ray Active Galactic Nuclei in the SSA22 Protocluster: Normal Supermassive Black Hole and Host-galaxy Growth for AGNs in a z = 3.09 Overdensity

We analyze the physical properties of eight X-ray-selected active galactic nuclei (AGNs) and one candidate protoquasar system (ADF22A1) in the z = 3.09 SSA22 protocluster by fitting their X-ray-to-IR spectral energy distributions (SEDs) using our SED-fitting code, Lightning (https://www.github.com/rafaeleufrasio/lightning). We recover star formation histories (SFHs) for seven of these systems which are well fit by composite stellar population plus AGN models. We find indications that four out of nine of the SSA22 AGN systems we study have host galaxies below the main sequence, with SFR/SFRMS ≤ −0.4. The remaining SSA22 systems, including ADF22A1, are consistent with obscured supermassive black hole (SMBH) growth in star-forming galaxies. We estimate the SMBH accretion rates and masses, and compare the properties and SFHs of the nine protocluster AGN systems with X-ray-detected AGN candidates in the Chandra Deep Fields (CDF), finding that the distributions of SMBH growth rates, star formation rates (SFRs), SMBH masses, and stellar masses for the protocluster AGNs are consistent with field AGNs. We constrain the ratio between the sample-averaged SSA22 SMBH mass and CDF SMBH mass to <1.41. While the AGNs are located near the density peaks of the protocluster, we find no statistically significant trends between the AGN or host-galaxy properties and their location in the protocluster. We interpret the similarity of the protocluster and field AGN populations together with existing results as suggesting that the protocluster and field AGNs coevolve with their hosts in the same ways, while AGN-triggering events are more likely in the protocluster.

Search strategies for supermassive stars in young clusters and application to nearby galaxies

Context. Supermassive stars (SMSs) with masses M ≳ 103 − 104 M⊙ formed by runaway collisions in young, massive, and dense star clusters have been invoked as a possible solution to the problem of the presence of multiple stellar populations and peculiar abundance patterns observed in globular clusters (GCs). However, no such objects have been observed so far. Aims. We aim to develop observational strategies to search for SMSs hosted within young massive clusters (thought to be the precursors of GCs) using both photometric and spectroscopic observations. Such strategies could be applicable in a relatively general fashion. Methods. We used theoretical predictions of the spectra of SMSs and SMS-hosting clusters, together with predictions from standard simple stellar populations to examine their impact on color–color diagrams and on individual optical spectral lines (primarily hydrogen emission and absorption lines). As a first step, we applied our search strategies to a sample of about 3000 young star clusters (YSCs) from two nearby galaxies with multiband observations from the HST and optical integral-field spectroscopy obtained with MUSE on the Very Large Telescope. Results. We focus on models for SMSs with large radii (corresponding to Teff ≲ 7000 K), which predict strong Balmer breaks, and construct proper color–color diagrams to select the corresponding SMS-hosting cluster candidates. We show that the spectrophotometric properties of these latter are similar to those of normal clusters with ages of a few hundred million years. However, the cluster SEDs show signs of composite stellar populations due to the presence of nebular lines (Hα and others). Examining the photometry, overall SEDs, and the spectra of approximately 100 clusters with strong Balmer breaks, we find several objects with peculiar SEDs, the presence of emission lines, or other peculiar signatures. After careful inspection of the available data, we do not find good candidates of SMS-hosting clusters. In most cases, the composite spectra can be explained by multiple clusters or H II regions inside the aperture covered by the spectra, by contamination from a planetary nebula or diffuse gas, or by improper background subtraction. Furthermore, most of our candidate clusters are too faint to host SMSs. Conclusions. We demonstrate a strategy to search for SMSs by applying it to a sample of YSCs in two nearby galaxies. Our method can be applied to larger samples and also extended to higher redshifts with existing and upcoming telescopes, and therefore should provide an important test for GC-formation scenarios invoking such extreme stars.

Individual element sensitivity for stellar evolutionary isochrones

ABSTRACT Stellar evolution calculations with variable abundance ratios were used to gauge the effects on temperatures, luminosities, and lifetimes in various phases. The individual elements C, N, O, Mg, Si, and Fe were included. Most of the effect relevant to integrated light models is contained in the temperature variable, as opposed to the time-scale or luminosity. We derive a recipe for including abundance-sensitive temperature effects that is applicable to existing isochrone grids. The resultant enhanced isochrones are incorporated into composite stellar population models and compared with galaxy data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. A severe oxygen–age degeneracy is apparent, 2–3 Gyr per 0.1 dex in [O/R], where R represents a heavy element such as Fe. Over the range of early-type galaxy velocity dispersion, the spans of all abundance ratios are reduced but the age range increases and becomes systematically older. Allowing Fe-peak elements the freedom to vary accentuates this increase of age span. Overall, these results sharpen the age–mass correlation known as downsizing but decrease the steepness of abundance ratio gradients. Both of these observations, in turn, imply a more robust contribution from gas-free mergers in the histories of typical elliptical galaxies.

On the Variation in Stellar α-enhancements of Star-forming Galaxies in the EAGLE Simulation

Abstract The ratio of α-elements to iron in galaxies holds valuable information about the star formation history (SFH) since their enrichment occurs on different timescales. The fossil record of stars in galaxies has mostly been excavated for passive galaxies, since the light of star-forming galaxies is dominated by young stars, which have much weaker atmospheric absorption features. Here we use the largest reference cosmological simulation of the EAGLE project to investigate the origin of variations in stellar α-enhancement among star-forming galaxies at z = 0, and their impact on integrated spectra. The definition of α-enhancement in a composite stellar population is ambiguous. We elucidate two definitions—termed “mean” and “galactic” α-enhancement—in more detail. While a star-forming galaxy has a high “mean” α-enhancement when its stars formed rapidly, a galaxy with a large “galactic” α-enhancement generally had a delayed SFH. We find that absorption-line strengths of Mg and Fe correlate with variations in α-enhancement. These correlations are strongest for the “galactic” α-enhancement. However, we show that these are mostly caused by other effects that are cross-correlated with α-enhancement, such as variations in the light-weighted age. This severely complicates the retrieval of α-enhancements in star-forming galaxies. The ambiguity is not severe for passive galaxies, and we confirm that spectral variations in these galaxies are caused by measurable variations in α-enhancements. We suggest that this more complex coupling between α-enhancement and SFHs can guide the interpretation of new observations of star-forming galaxies.

A detailed study of stellar populations of three star clusters with extended main-sequence turnoffs

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the extended main-sequence turnoffs (eMSTOs) and stellar populations of three clusters with different ages using Gaia Data Release 2 (DR2) data in detail. The colour–magnitude diagrams (CMDs) of three Galactic clusters show broad main sequences, eMSTOs, blue stragglers, and red giant clumps. We explore the effects of age spread, binaries, and rotating stars on the morphology of the entire CMD, paying particular attention to the effects of binary stars and rotating stars on eMSTOs. Some synthetic CMDs are built on the basis of the advanced stellar population synthesis (ASPS) model to study the observed CMDs and search for the best-fitting stellar population models. The age of the youngest stars, age spread, metallicity, colour excess, distance modulus, binary fraction, and rotating star fraction of clusters are determined. The results show that both binaries and rotating stars are responsible for the eMSTO of intermediate-age cluster LP 585, but binary stars affect more than rotating stars on the eMSTO morphologies of the youngest (M11) and oldest (NGC 6819) clusters in our samples. It suggests that M11 (∼0.3 Gyr) is possibly a composite stellar population of rotating and binary stars, while clusters LP 585 (∼1.1 Gyr) and NGC 6819 (∼2.0 Gyr) are simple stellar populations of rotating and binary stars.

Surface brightness fluctuations to constrain secondary stellar populations: revealing very low-metallicity stars in massive galaxies

ABSTRACT The aim of this work is to explore the potential of surface brightness fluctuations (SBF) for studying composite stellar populations (CSP). To do so, we have computed the standard (mean) and SBF spectra with E-MILES stellar population synthesis code. We have created a set of models composed by different mass fractions of two single stellar populations, as a first approximation of a CSP scenario. With these models we present an ensemble of SBF colour–colour diagnostic diagrams that reveal different secondary populations depending on the bands used. For this work we focus on those colours capable of unveiling small fractions of metal-poor components in elliptical galaxies, which are dominated by old metal-rich stellar populations. We fit a set of synthetic models and a selection of nearby elliptical galaxies to our CSP models using both mean and SBF colours. We find that the results are highly improved and return small secondary components when mean and SBF values are applied simultaneously, instead of employing them separately or as a constraint. Finally, we explore the possibility of tracking chemical enrichment histories by including in the analysis a variety of SBF colours. For this purpose we present an example where, with two different SBF colour–colour diagrams, we untangle a small contribution of a young solar population and an old metal-poor component from an old solar principal population. The results we have found are promising, but limited by the available data. We highlight the urgent need for new, better, and more consistent SBF observations.

Measuring Distances to Low-luminosity Galaxies Using Surface Brightness Fluctuations

Abstract We present an in-depth study of surface brightness fluctuations (SBFs) in low-luminosity stellar systems. Using the MIST models, we compute theoretical predictions for absolute SBF magnitudes in the LSST, HST ACS/WFC, and proposed Roman Space Telescope filter systems. We compare our calculations to observed SBF–color relations of systems that span a wide range of age and metallicity. Consistent with previous studies, we find that single-age population models show excellent agreement with observations of low-mass galaxies with 0.5 ≲ g − i ≲ 0.9. For bluer galaxies, the observed relation is better fit by models with composite stellar populations. To study SBF recovery from low-luminosity systems, we perform detailed image simulations in which we inject fully populated model galaxies into deep ground-based images from real observations. Our simulations show that LSST will provide data of sufficient quality and depth to measure SBF magnitudes with precisions of ∼0.2–0.5 mag in ultra-faint and low-mass classical (M ⋆ ≤ 107 M ⊙) dwarf galaxies out to ∼4 Mpc and ∼25 Mpc, respectively, within the first few years of its deep-wide-fast survey. Many significant practical challenges and systematic uncertainties remain, including an irreducible “sampling scatter” in the SBFs of ultra-faint dwarfs due to their undersampled stellar mass functions. We nonetheless conclude that SBFs in the new generation of wide-field imaging surveys have the potential to play a critical role in the efficient confirmation and characterization of dwarf galaxies in the nearby universe.

Young stellar population gradients in central cluster galaxies from NUV and optical spectroscopy

ABSTRACT Central cluster galaxies are the largest and most massive galaxies in the Universe. Although they host very old stellar populations, several studies found the existence of blue cores in some BCGs indicating ongoing star formation. We analyse VLT/X-Shooter stacked spectra of 6 nearby massive central galaxies with high central velocity dispersions (σ &amp;gt; 300 km s−1) at different galactocentric distances. We quantify the young stellar population out to 4 kpc by fitting near-UV and optical absorption line indices with predictions of composite stellar populations modelled by an old and a young stellar component. We also use IMF-sensitive indices since these galaxies have been found to host a bottom-heavy IMF in their central regions. We derive negative young stellar populations gradients, with mass fractions of stars younger than 1 Gyr decreasing with galactocentric distance, from 0.70 per cent within 0.8 kpc to zero beyond 2 kpc. We also measure the mass fraction in young stars for individual galaxies in the highest S/N central regions. All the galaxies have young components of less than one percent. Our results clearly suggest that the star formation in massive central cluster galaxies takes place in their galaxy cores (&amp;lt;2 kpc), which, with deeper gravitational potential wells, are capable of retaining more gas. Among the possible sources for the gas required to form these young stars, our results are consistent with an in situ origin via stellar evolution, which is sufficient to produce the observed young stellar populations.

Study of color-magnitude diagram of star cluster SL 506

We report a study of the color-magnitude diagram (CMD) of globular cluster SL 506, which shows extended main sequence turn-off (eMSTO). The CMD is derived from deep F450W (B) and F555W (V) images of Hubble Space Telescope/Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 (HST/WFPC2). We reproduce the CMD via simple stellar population including the combination of rotational stars and binaries, and composite stellar population of non-rotating single stars. We derive the parameters of the star cluster, including age, age spread, metallicity, color excess, distance modulus, binary fraction, and rotating star fraction, by comparing the observed and synthetic CMDs. The results show that the eMSTO region of the cluster can be reproduced by both age spread and a combination of rotating and binary stars, but the blue stragglers, color and magnitude distributions can not be reproduced well by age spread. This implies that SL 506 is a simple population with rotating, single and binary stars.

The Semiforbidden C iii] λ1909 Emission in the Rest-ultraviolet Spectra of Green Pea Galaxies

Abstract We used the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) to observe the semiforbidden C iii] λλ1907, 1909 doublet emission in green pea galaxies at 0.13 ≤ z ≤ 0.3. We detect C iii] emission in 7/10 galaxies with C iii] equivalent widths (EWs) that range from 2 to 10 Å, confirming that C iii] emission is almost ubiquitous in low-mass, low-metallicity (12+log(O/H) &lt; 8.4) galaxies that are characterized by strong optical [O iii] λ5007 emission. The composite UV spectrum shows evidence for the He ii λ1640 emission line and interstellar absorption features (e.g., C iv λλ1548, 1550, Al iii λλ1854, 1862). We do not detect the O iii] λλ1661, 1666 emission with &gt;3σ significance. The observed C iii] emission line strengths are consistent with the predictions from photoionization models that incorporate the effects of binary stellar evolution with young stellar ages ≤3–5 Myr and high ionization parameters (log U &gt; −2). The hard ionizing radiation from young massive stars and high nebular temperatures at low metallicities can account for the observed high EWs of C iii] λ1909 and [O iii] λ5007 emission lines. Some of the star-forming galaxies at high redshift and local blue compact dwarf galaxies show offsets from the EW(C iii]) versus EW([O iii]) model grids, indicating an additional contribution to the continuum emission from composite stellar populations or different C/O abundances, nebular temperatures, and electron densities than assumed in the photoionization models. The green pea galaxies do not show a significant correlation between the Lyα and C iii] EWs, and the observed scatter is likely due to the variations in the optical depth of Lyα to the neutral gas. Green pea galaxies are likely to be density-bounded, and we examined the dependence of C iii] emission on the Lyman continuum optical depth. The potential LyC leaker galaxies in our sample have high C iii] EWs that can only be reproduced by starburst ages as young as &lt;3 Myr and harder ionizing spectra than the nonleakers. Among the galaxies with similar metallicities and ionization parameters, the C iii] EW appears to be stronger for those with higher optical depth to LyC, as expected from the photoionization models. There are various factors that affect the C iii] emission line strengths, and further investigation of a larger sample of C iii] emitters is necessary to calibrate the dependence of C iii] emission on the escape of LyC radiation and enable application of the C iii] diagnostics to galaxies in the reionization epoch.

Chemodynamical properties of the Anticentre Stream: a surviving disc fossil from a past satellite interaction

ABSTRACT Using Gaia second data release (DR2), we trace the Anticentre Stream (ACS) in various stellar populations across the sky and find that it is kinematically and spatially decoupled from the Monoceros Ring. Using stars from lamost and segue, we show that the ACS is systematically more metal-poor than Monoceros by 0.1 dex with indications of a narrower metallicity spread. Furthermore, the ACS is predominantly populated of old stars ($\sim 10\, \rm {Gyr}$), whereas Monoceros has a pronounced tail of younger stars ($6-10\, \rm {Gyr}$) as revealed by their cumulative age distributions. Put together, all of this evidence support predictions from simulations of the interaction of the Sagittarius dwarf with the Milky Way, which argue that the ACS is the remains of a tidal tail of the Galaxy excited during Sgr’s first pericentric passage after it crossed the virial radius, whereas Monoceros consists of the composite stellar populations excited during the more extended phases of the interaction. Importantly, the ACS can be viewed as a stand-alone fossil of the chemical enrichment history of the Galactic disc.

Stellar populations of galaxies in the ALHAMBRA survey up to z ∼ 1

Aims. We perform a comprehensive study of the stellar population properties (formation epoch, age, metallicity, and extinction) of quiescent galaxies as a function of size and stellar mass to constrain the physical mechanism governing the stellar mass assembly and the likely evolutive scenarios that explain their growth in size. Methods. After selecting all the quiescent galaxies from the ALHAMBRA survey by the dust-corrected stellar mass–colour diagram, we built a shared sample of ∼850 quiescent galaxies with reliable measurements of sizes from the HST. This sample is complete in stellar mass and luminosity, I ≤ 23. The stellar population properties were retrieved using the fitting code for spectral energy distributions called MUlti-Filter FITting for stellar population diagnostics (MUFFIT) with various sets of composite stellar population models. Age, formation epoch, metallicity, and extinction were studied on the stellar mass–size plane as function of size through a Monte Carlo approach. This accounted for uncertainties and degeneracy effects amongst stellar population properties. Results. The stellar population properties of quiescent galaxies and their stellar mass and size since z ∼ 1 are correlated. At fixed stellar mass, the more compact the quiescent galaxy, the older and richer in metals it is (1 Gyr and 0.1 dex, respectively). In addition, more compact galaxies may present slight lower extinctions than their more extended counterparts at the same stellar mass (&lt; 0.1 mag). By means of studying constant regions of stellar population properties across the stellar mass–size plane, we obtained empirical relations to constrain the physical mechanism that governs the stellar mass assembly of the form M⋆ ∝ rcα, where α amounts to 0.50–0.55 ± 0.09. There are indications that support the idea that the velocity dispersion is tightly correlated with the stellar content of galaxies. The mechanisms driving the evolution of stellar populations can therefore be partly linked to the dynamical properties of galaxies, along with their gravitational potential.

Stellar populations of galaxies in the ALHAMBRA survey up to z ∼ 1

Aims.Our aim is to determine the distribution of stellar population parameters (extinction, age, metallicity, and star formation rates) of quiescent galaxies within the rest-frame stellar mass–colour diagrams andUVJcolour–colour diagrams corrected for extinction up toz ∼ 1. These novel diagrams reduce the contamination in samples of quiescent galaxies owing to dust-reddened galaxies, and they provide useful constraints on stellar population parameters only using rest-frame colours and/or stellar mass.Methods.We set constraints on the stellar population parameters of quiescent galaxies combining the ALHAMBRA multi-filter photo-spectra with our fitting code for spectral energy distribution, MUlti-Filter FITting (MUFFIT), making use of composite stellar population models based on two independent sets of simple stellar population (SSP) models. The extinction obtained by MUFFIT allowed us to remove dusty star-forming (DSF) galaxies from the sample of redUVJgalaxies. The distributions of stellar population parameters across these rest-frame diagrams are revealed after the dust correction and are fitted by LOESS, a bi-dimensional and locally weighted regression method, to reduce uncertainty effects.Results.Quiescent galaxy samples defined via classicalUVJdiagrams are typically contaminated by a ∼20% fraction of DSF galaxies. A significant part of the galaxies in the green valley are actually obscured star-forming galaxies (∼30–65%). Consequently, the transition of galaxies from the blue cloud to the red sequence, and hence the related mechanisms for quenching, seems to be much more efficient and faster than previously reported. The rest-frame stellar mass–colour andUVJcolour–colour diagrams are useful for constraining the age, metallicity, extinction, and star formation rate of quiescent galaxies by only their redshift, rest-frame colours, and/or stellar mass. Dust correction plays an important role in understanding how quiescent galaxies are distributed in these diagrams and is key to performing a pure selection of quiescent galaxies via intrinsic colours.

Inner and outer star forming regions over the disks of spiral galaxies

Context.The H IIregions are all studied employing the same general prescriptions and models, independently of the regions location in the galaxy disk. However, observed discrepancies between physical properties of inner and outer regions may indicate systematic differences in their star formation processes due to the influence of their environments.Aims.Through the analysis of inner and outer H IIregion observed spectra, we aim to explore possible systematic differences between the physical properties (metallicity, mass, and age) of their ionising clusters in order to study how star formation proceeds in different environments.Methods.We analysed two samples of 725 inner and 671 outer regions, characterised in the first paper of this series. Their functional parameters (oxygen abundances, ionisation parameters, and effective temperatures) were estimated and this parameter grid is employed as input for the computation of 540 Cloudy photoionisation models. Observed regions are compared with model predictions using diagnostic and evolutionary diagrams.Results.Higher metallicities are confirmed for the inner regions, although there are important discrepancies between the diagnostic diagrams. Calibrations based on the N2 index may underestimate inner regions oxygen abundances due to the [N II] saturation at solar metallicities. The degeneracy between the age and ionisation parameter affects oxygen abundance calibrations based on the O3N2 index. Innermost regions seem to have enhanced N/O ratios with respect to the expected values considering secondary production of nitrogen, which indicate an increase in the slope of the relation between N/O and O/H. Ionisation parameter calibrations based on the [S II]/Hαratio are not valid for inner regions due to the observed bivalued behaviour of this ratio with O/H. Innermost regions have lower [O II]/[O III] ratio values than expected, indicating a possible non-linear relation betweenuandZ. Composite stellar populations (ionising and non-ionising) are present in both inner and outer regions, with an ionising contribution of around 1%. In considering the effects of evolution and underlying populations, inner regions show larger ionising cluster masses that possibly compose star-forming complexes. The most conservative lower limit for ionising cluster masses of outer regions indicate that they might be affected by stochastic effects. Equivalent widths indicate younger ages for outer regions, but degeneracy between evolution and underlying population effects prevent a quantitative determination. Nebular properties of the H IIregions are also derived: inner regions have larger angular sizes, lower filling factors, and larger ionised hydrogen masses.Conclusions.Systematic physical differences are confirmed between ionising clusters of inner and outer H IIregions. These differences condition the validity and range of reliability of oxygen abundance and ionisation parameter calibrations commonly applied to the study of H IIregions.

CIGALE: a python Code Investigating GALaxy Emission

Context. Measuring how the physical properties of galaxies change across cosmic times is essential to understand galaxy formation and evolution. With the advent of numerous ground-based and space-borne instruments launched over the past few decades we now have exquisite multi-wavelength observations of galaxies from the far-ultraviolet (FUV) to the radio domain. To tap into this mine of data and obtain new insight into the formation and evolution of galaxies, it is essential that we are able to extract information from their spectral energy distribution (SED). Aims. We present a completely new implementation of Code Investigating GALaxy Emission (CIGALE). Written in python, its main aims are to easily and efficiently model the FUV to radio spectrum of galaxies and estimate their physical properties such as star formation rate, attenuation, dust luminosity, stellar mass, and many other physical quantities. Methods. To compute the spectral models, CIGALE builds composite stellar populations from simple stellar populations combined with highly flexible star formation histories, calculates the emission from gas ionised by massive stars, and attenuates both the stars and the ionised gas with a highly flexible attenuation curve. Based on an energy balance principle, the absorbed energy is then re-emitted by the dust in the mid- and far-infrared domains while thermal and non-thermal components are also included, extending the spectrum far into the radio range. A large grid of models is then fitted to the data and the physical properties are estimated through the analysis of the likelihood distribution. Results. CIGALE is a versatile and easy-to-use tool that makes full use of the architecture of multi-core computers, building grids of millions of models and analysing samples of thousands of galaxies, both at high speed. Beyond fitting the SEDs of galaxies and parameter estimations, it can also be used as a model-generation tool or serve as a library to build new applications.

Stellar populations and star formation histories of the nuclear star clusters in six nearby galaxies★

The majority of spiral and elliptical galaxies in the Universe host very dense and compact stellar systems at their centres known as nuclear star clusters (NSCs). In this work we study the stellar populations and star formation histories (SFH) of the NSCs of six nearby galaxies with stellar masses ranging between $2$ and $8\times10^9~{\rm M_{\odot}}$ (four late-type spirals and two early-types) with high resolution spectroscopy. Our observations are taken with the X-Shooter spectrograph at the VLT. We make use of an empirical simple stellar population (SSP) model grid to fit composite stellar populations to the data and recover the SFHs of the nuclei. We find that the nuclei of all late-type galaxies experienced a prolonged SFH, while the NSCs of the two early-types are consistent with SSPs. The NSCs in the late-type galaxies sample appear to have formed a significant fraction of their stellar mass already more than $10$ Gyr ago, while the NSCs in the two early-type galaxies are surprisingly younger. Stars younger than $100$ Myr are present in at least two nuclei: NGC 247 and NGC 7793, with some evidence for young star formation in NGC 300's NSC. The NSCs of the spirals NGC 247 and NGC 300 are consistent with prolonged \in situ star formation with a gradual metallicity enrichment from $\sim-1.5$ dex more than $10$ Gyr ago, reaching super-Solar values few hundred Myr ago. NGC 3621 appears to be very metal rich already in the early Universe and NGC 7793 presents us with a very complex SFH, likely dominated by merging of various massive star clusters coming from different environments.

Theory of multiple-stellar population synthesis in a non-Hamiltonian setting

We aim to investigate the connections existing between the density profiles of the stellar populations used to define a gravitationally bound stellar system and their star formation history: we do this by developing a general framework accounting for both classical stellar population theory and classical stellar dynamics. We extend the work of Pasetto et al. (2012) on a single composite-stellar population (CSP) to multiple CSPs, including also a phase-space description of the CSP concept. In this framework, we use the concept of distribution function to define the CSP in terms of mass, metallicity, and phase-space in a suitable space of existence E of the CSP.We introduce the concept of foliation of E to describe formally any CSP as sum of disjointed Simple Stellar Populations (SSP), with the aim to offer a more general formal setting to cast the equations of stellar populations theory and stellar dynamics theory. In doing so, we allow the CSP to be object of dissipation processes thus developing its dynamics in a general non-Hamiltonian framework.Furthermore, we investigate the necessary and sufficient condition to realize a multiple CSP consistent with its mass-metallicity and phase-space distribution function over its temporal evolution, for a collisionless CSP. Finally, analytical and numerical examples show the potential of the result obtained.