Tire Components Research Articles

Synthesis and Application of Silica Supported Calix[4]arene Derivative as a New Processing Aid Agent for Reducing Hysteresis of Tread Rubber Compounds Used in Low Rolling Resistance Tires.

Rolling resistance is one of the most important properties of a tire which is highly dependent on the viscoelastic properties of its rubber compounds. There are a lot of ways to reduce this parameter both in construction improvement of the tire and changing in rubber compound formulation especially in tire tread formulation. Rubber scientists have been trying to introduce new processing aid agents beyond the traditional tire components for reducing the rolling resistance. In this study, a unique structure of silica-supported calix[4]arene (SS-CSC[4]A) has been synthesized and applied as a processing aid agent in tire tread formulation. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1HNMR and 13CNMR), 29Si CP/MAS spectroscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), elemental analysis, and acid-base titration were used to characterize its structure. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) use to investigate the effect of prepared material on qualification of filler dispersion in the rubber matrix. The viscoelastic properties of the prepared rubber compound were measured by Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis (DMTA) which showed the great decrease in rolling resistance of rubber compound based on SS-CSC[4]A as a processing aid agent. The mechanical and rheological properties of obtained tread rubber compound measured by tensometer and MDR rheometer showed no sensible changes in these properties.

Fatigue crack growth behavior and morphological analysis of natural rubber compounds with varying particle size and structure of carbon black

AbstractCarbon black (CB) is an essential ingredient of any rubber compound to achieve the desired strength, stiffness, wear, and fatigue resistance. Depending on the function of a tire component (tread, sidewall, apex, etc.), different types of CBs, varying in particle sizes and structures, are used. On prolonged exposure to cyclic loading, rubber compounds lose their strength due to mechanical fatigue. In this study, the fatigue crack growth (FCG) behavior of unfilled and CB‐filled natural rubber compounds is investigated with varying particle size and structure (N115, N134, N220, N234, N330, and N339). FCG properties have been measured using a Tear and Fatigue Analyzer under various strain levels and temperatures. Microscopic analysis revealed that compounds with lower particle size and high structure CB showed better distribution and dispersion of CB throughout the whole matrix. Lower particle size with higher surface area displayed superior FCG resistance compared to the higher particle size CB. FCG of above compounds has also been studied at three different temperatures such as room temperature (25°C), 70°C, and 100°C. Significant increase in FCG rate was observed with increase in temperature due to the thermo‐oxidative degradation and reduction of strain‐induced crystallization.

LITERATURE REVIEW ON TIRE COMPONENT REQUIREMENTS

This paper is a literature review about tire component requirements for innovation in tire construction. Herein are pointed out essential aspects expected in Tires’ structures from the mechanical point of view for future development of a realistic model for advanced simulation of tires (in miscellaneous operating conditions) and innovation in tire mechanics. Being composite structures, tires are made of many elements chosen with delicacy due to their intrinsic physical properties in regards to load effects. Since tires' mechanical behavior is directly linked to the parameters of its constituents (carcass, steel cord belt, and textile cord belt, namely), it is thereof imperative to grasp some solid pieces of knowledge about. Wherefore, the current contribution explored the mechanical requirements to be taken into account in the matrix (rubber) and reinforcements (steel cords and textile cords) for determining the inputs enabling to build up an accurate and simple computer model for improving tires simulation.

Image detection and parameterization for different components in cross-sections of radial tires

The internal structure analysis of radial tires is of great significance to improve vehicle safety and during tire research. In order to perform the digital analysis and detection of the internal composition in radial tire cross-sections, a detection method based on digital image processing was proposed. The research was carried out as follows: (a) the distribution detection and parametric analysis of the bead wire, steel belt, and carcass in the tire section were performed by means of digital image processing, connected domain extraction, and Hough transform; (b) using the angle of location distribution and area relationship, the detection data were optimized through coordinate and quantity relationship constraints; (c) a detection system for tire cross-section components was designed using the MATLAB platform. Our experimental results showed that this method displayed a good detection performance, and important practical significance for the research and manufacture of tires.

Performance Analysis of Tyre Manufacturing System in the SMEs Using RAMD Approach

In the recent trends, production plants in the automobile industries all over the world are facing a lot of challenges to achieve better productivity and customer satisfaction due to increasing the passenger’s necessity and demand for transportation. In this direction, the belt, tyre, and tube manufacturing plants act as vital roles in the day-to-day life of the automobile industries. Tyre production plant comprises five major units, namely, raw material selection, preparation, tyre components, finishing, and inspection. The main purpose of this research is to implement the new method to predict the most critical subsystems in the tyre manufacturing system of the rubber industry. As mathematically, any one maintenance parameter among reliability, availability, maintainability, and dependability (RAMD) parameters is evaluated to identify the critical subsystems and their effect on the effectiveness of the tyre production system. In this research, the effect of variation in maintenance indices, RAMD, is measured to identify the critical subsystem of the tyre production system based on the mathematical modeling Markov birth-death approach (MBDA), and the equations of the subsystems are derived by using the Chapman–Kolmogorov method. Besides, it also calculates the performance of certain maintenance parameters concerning time such as mean time between failures (MTBF), mean time to repair (MTTR), and dependability ratio for each subsystem of the tyre production system. Finally, RAMD analysis of the tyre production systems has been executed for predicting the most critical subsystem by changing the rates of failure and repair of individual subsystems with the utilization of MATLAB software. RAMD analysis reveals that the subsystem bias cutting is most critical with the minimum availability of 0.8387, dependability 5.19, dependability ratio 0.8701, and maximum MTTR 38.46 hours of the subsystem. In this implementation of the proposed method, a real-time case study of the industrial repairable system of tyre manufacturing system has been taken for evaluating RAMD indices of the production plant of rubber industry cited in the southern region of Tamil Nadu, India.

Quantification of tire wear particles in road dust from industrial and residential areas in Seoul, Korea

In this study, we examined tire and road wear microparticles (TRWMPs) in road dust along the Seoul metropolitan area, from industrial and residential areas. The road dust samples were collected via vacuum sweep methods and then filtered to obtain particles with diameters less than 75 μm. To quantify the TRWMPs in road dust, we used the raw materials of tire components, natural rubber (NR), and styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR), as standard materials. We evaluated the usability of the pyrolyzer-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry py-GC/MS method introduced in ISO/TS 20593 by confirming the decomposition temperatures of the NR and SBR by thermogravimetric (TG) and evolved gas analysis (EGA)-MS. The average of TRWMPs in industrial and residential area road dust were 22,581 and 9818 μg/g, respectively, indicating that the industrial area has 2.5 times higher TRWMPs concentration. Further, the NR, the main component of truck bus radial, to SBR, the main component of passenger car radial, ratio was slightly higher in the industrial area than in the residential area. This presumably means that the high traffic volume, including heavy duty vehicles in industrial areas, affected the higher concentration of TRWMPs. This study reveals the growing evidence of the importance of TRWMPs in road dust and how TRWMPs quantity can impact the air quality of the Seoul metropolitan area.

Initial Assessment of Liquefied Scrap Tire Concrete

AbstractA new approach to incorporate scrap tire material into concrete was investigated, in which two reclaimed waste tire components, carbon black and fuel oil, were used to replace a portion of ...

Optimized Stress-Strain Ranges for Hyperelastic Constitutive Models Supporting the Simulation of Vertical Stiffness on Airless Tire

The airless tires are developed to overcome a disadvantage of pneumatic tire which lost maneuverability caused of flattening and blasting. The finite element analysis (FEA) is an effective method for development of airless tires which have a complex construction. The material properties which describe mechanical behavior of each tire component are very important to yield accurate result. The high order constitutive model usually obtains the accuracy of FEA results. Unfortunately, it consumes the simulating time. The suitable stress-strain range of Mooney-Rivlin and Ogden model was selected in this research. The vertical stiffness of airless tire model was compared to the experiment. This study found that the accurate result and consuming less time of TWEEL airless tire model depended on an appropriate pair of material properties. There were 100% of tread and 30% of spoke stress-strain characteristic based on the Mooney-Rivlin model. Consequently, the study and design of airless tire by finite element method will be carried out efficiently in the further works.

Development of Tire-Wear Particle Emission Measurements for Passenger Vehicles

In this study, we aimed to develop a new method for measuring tire-wear particles of less than 2.5 μm generated from vehicle use. We also aimed to devise a method for evaluating the emission factor of tire-wear particles. To develop an evaluation method for tire-wear particles, we examined several factors, such as how tire components in airborne particles collected on a sampling filter were measured, the comparison of tire-wear particles obtained in a laboratory study and an on-road study, a method for measuring tire-wear particles using a test vehicle, and a method for evaluating tire-wear mass using a weighting balance. Measurements of tire-wear particles were carried out using the measurement method proposed herein. The amount of tire wear that the particles generated was almost constant in a vehicle speed range of 20–40 km/h but was influenced by a change in lateral acceleration in the range of 0–0.4G. Furthermore, the relationship between the emission of tire-wear particles and the lateral acceleration force can be shown by a quadratic polynomial. We estimated the emission factor of tire-wear particles by applying the relational equation to the speed profile of the JC08 used in Japanese exhaust gas tests. The emission factor of the test tire used in this study was 3.7 mg/km-vehicle. The ratio of the tire-wear particles to tread wear mass was about 3.3% at PM2.5 and 3.7% at PM10.

Microparticle Size and Quantities Effect on the Mechanical Features of End of Life Tires in Thermoplastic Composites.

Currently, the huge use of tires generates large quantities of waste material which represents a severe environmental problem. The common technique used for processing waste tires is crushing using mechanical methods and separating tire components like fibers, metals, and rubber from the used tire. The aim of this research is the recycling of this rubber from crushed tires, called ground tire rubber (GTR). With this aim, the manuscript analyses key mechanical properties of the thermoplastic composites produced by blending of crushed and micronized small particles of waste rubber tires with several industrial thermoplastic polymers. These types of composites are defined based on the total amount GTR in percent by weight, in the composite, and also, the particle sizes used in each case, so these aforementioned two variables (microparticle size and amounts) along with seven common industrial polymers define a series of composites for which the mechanical properties were tested, studied, analyzed and finally presented. Finally, the results obtained show that this proposed recycling method could be a way to enhance some specific polymer properties and could contribute to reducing the total of end of life used tire stocks environmental problem.

Mechanical Properties and Air Permeability of Concrete Containing Waste Tires Extracts

AbstractThe safe disposal of waste tires has been seen as having a negative impact on the environment. To mitigate this impact, the components of waste tires can be used in the production of green ...

The modification of steel belt layer of airless tire for finite element analysis

The airless tire can be considered as composite structure since it composed of several components with different materials for desired performance. The three main components of airless tire are rubber tread, shear band and polymer spokes. The shear band composed of three complex steel belt layers and should be considered as a sub composite structure. The finite element method can be used in designing and development of airless tire. However the diversity of materials in each component including the complex sub structure resulted in complicate modelling and consuming analysis time. Thus, the large computational resources are required to analyse those components. In this research, the simplification of modelling and analysis of airless tire was attempted by modification of steel belt layers. The Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic model was used to describe the material properties of tread and spoke. The constitutive model constants were obtained by tensile and compressive test according to ASTM D412 and D575 standards, respectively. The simplified belt, which was developed by homogenization approach, was integrated into shear band component. The airless tire model with modified steel belt layers can be used to reduce the model complexity and analysis time while yields accurate results.

Study on the Mechanical Properties of Rubber Asphalt by Molecular Dynamics Simulation.

Introducing the crumb rubber into asphalt binder not only can improve the performances of asphalt binder significantly but also can recycle the waste tire economically. However, rubber asphalt presents different mechanical property for the complex sources of crumb rubber. In this study, rubber was classified according to the application situation and the components of tires and three kinds of rubber were selected as the representative of commonly used rubber. Afterwards, molecular dynamics simulations including molecular modelling, dynamics calculation, and mechanical properties analysis were conducted for rubber asphalt with the obtained rubber based on Materials Studio 8.0 software. The variation of mechanical properties of rubber asphalt with rubber contents and rubber types was investigated. The results show that the optimum rubber contents for the tire tread of passenger car, the tire tread of truck, and the tire sidewall are 15%, 5~10%, and 15% respectively. Moreover, rubber from the tire tread of passenger car and the tire sidewall should be given priority for actual applications in rubber asphalt. Graphical Abstract.

A Research for Evaluation of Life Span of a Tire through Image Processing Technique.

The tire component of a car is the only one which is in direct contact with the road. They become defective because of factors like driver’s driving, wear out, pressure, overheating, wheel alignment. When the tire is worn, the threads shallow up and can cause the failure of the tires hence reducing safety. A new tire has the capacity of absorbing the heat whereas; the old tire does not absorb the heat and hence is prone to damages. Gray level changes in the image of the tire before and after its surface deformation are found. These changes predict the life of the tire, "more the gray level changes lesser is the life span of the tire and vice-versa". These gray level changes can be found out by using "SVD" The surface deformation of a tire is found by using SVD (Single value decomposition) with PCA(Principal component analysis) algorithm. PCA is used for the sake of Dimensionality Reduction. The principal components depending upon the variance of each training samples and the test samples help in the analysis of its life span. This paper proposes a robust image processing technique developed using the MatLab platform for nondestructive testing of a tire

Calculation of the Structural Stiffness of Run-flat and Regular Tires by considering Strain Energy

The vertical stiffness of a tire is defined by the ratio of the vertical force to the deflection; it can be expressed as the combination of the structural stiffness and air stiffness. However, the calculation of the structural stiffness alone is challengeable, and therefore this paper presents a new methodology for extracting the structural stiffness from the strain energy of the regular and run-flat tires. In order to verify our proposed method, the applied force-deflection relationship was compared with the calculated force-deflection relationship using the proposed energy method at zero air pressure. Further, the structural stiffness of the inflated regular and run-flat tires was calculated. In addition, we obtained the structural stiffness of the tire components to investigate the effect of each component on the overall structural stiffness of both tires. Finally, we analyzed the vertical and structural stiffness of the run-flat tire when the inflation pressure and the elastic modulus of the components were varied.

APPLICATION OF CALIXARENE DERIVATIVES AS TACKIFIER RESIN IN RUBBER COMPOUNDS FOR TIRE APPLICATIONS

ABSTRACT The effect of p-tert-Butylcalix[4]arene on rubber-nylon-6 fabric and rubber-metal bead wire adhesion strength was quantified. For this purpose, two typically used rubber compounds were employed for two reinforcing motorcycle tire components: ply and bead. The standard pull-out tests of rubber–fabric and rubber–metal showed improvements in adhesion strength by incorporating p-tert-Butylcalix[4]arene into rubber compounds. However, the maximum values of adhesion force to pull the polyamide fabrics and brass-coated metal wires out of the rubber compounds were observed when only 1.0 phr of p-tert-Butylcalix[4]arene was used. The adhesion performance of both fabric and metal wire decreased with higher loading amounts of p-tert-Butylcalix[4]arene. The effect of a commercial phenolic tackifying resin was also evaluated in bead compound. Very similar adhesion results to p-tert-Butylcalix[4]arene were obtained when using 1.0 phr phenolic resin.

Kinetic analysis of waste tire-char CO2 gasification

This work reports a kinetic analysis of tire tread and sidewall char in a thermogravimetic analyzer between 850°C and 1100°C to determine intrinsic kinetic parameters between 10 and 60% conversion. Experimental data was modeled using the volumetric, grain and random pore model, the random pore model described the reactions best and activation energy was found to be 116 and 130kJ/mol for tire tread and sidewall respectively. The onset for diffusion control was observed at 925-950°C for both samples. An increase in tire proportion was shown to decrease coal reactivity during co-gasification at different tire proportion and it was demonstrated that tire tread and sidewall are similar in gasification behavior save the inhibition effect caused by residual ash on tread at high conversions. The reactivity of both tire tread and side wall was lower than that of coal but almost equal therefore, this does not justify separation of tire components prior to gasification.

Implications of the Use of Silica as Active Filler in Passenger Car Tire Compounds on Their Recycling Options.

Tires are an important vehicle component, as car handling, safety and fuel economy depend for a major part on the tire composition and construction. As a consequence, tires are improved continuously. The most prominent improvement in the recent past was the use of a silica-silane filler system in passenger car tread compounds, instead of traditionally used carbon black. For recycling and re-use of end-of-life car tire rubber one of the most promising recycling methods is devulcanization: re-plasticizing the vulcanized rubber by selectively breaking the sulfur bridges between the polymer molecules. In the present paper, the influence of silica, which is present in the passenger car tires granulate, on both devulcanization and subsequent revulcanization, is investigated. In a step-wise approach it is shown that the presence of silica influences both devulcanization and revulcanization. The best tensile strength of the revulcanizate, using a carbon-black-based revulcanization formulation, was 5 MPa. This could be improved to 6.5 MPa by using 2.8 phr of 1,3-DiPhenylGuanidine (DPG) in the revulcanization formulation. After addition of a silanization step during revulcanization by adding 3.2 phr bis[3-(TriEthoxySilyl)Propyl] Tetrasulfide (TESPT), a silane, to the formulation, the tensile strength of the revulcanizate was further improved to 8 MPa. With these results it is shown that the silica in the granulate can be used to improve the revulcanization properties. To check the benefits of using pure tire tread material for the devulcanization and subsequent revulcanization, of both a carbon black and a silica-based virgin tread compound, it is shown that a tensile strength of the revulcanizate of 13 MPa can be reached. This shows the potential of devulcanized rubber when the various tire components are separated before whole car tire material is granulated as the beginning of the recycling.

Fatigue damage investigation of ultra-large tire components

Off-road ultra-large tires experience different modes of heat-related fatigue failure in operation due to inherent material defects that grow into visible cracks under service loads. This study implements the cracking energy density theory to predict nucleation life of selected components of a 56/80R63 tire. The method uses an assumed intrinsic flaw, a fatigue crack growth law, and a rubber constitutive law to compute local crack driving forces from strain history loads obtained via FEA. The results show that the lower sidewall, belt endings, and inner tread lug corners are the critical regions for crack initiation with lives 5.03 × 105, 1.207 × 105, and 2.01 × 104 cycles, respectively.

PPG receives DOE funding to develop AGILON silica for non-tread tyre components

Studies comparing the structural differences of tires have not qualitatively or quantitatively considered the effects of tread geometry on tire behaviour or the interactions of the tire with the surface. Therefore, to determine the effects of different tire tread patterns on the stress distribution of the tire and soil compaction, we compared the structural behaviours of a high-flotation tractive-tread (TT) tire and a smooth-tread (ST) tire. The experiments were conducted over a rigid and over a deformable surface. The results from the rigid surface shows the influences of the tread pattern and sidewalls is dependent of the loads. Over the deformable surface, the contact area of the TT tire was larger than that of the ST tire. The inflation pressure (IP) was mainly responsible for the load support before the soil reached its maximum deformation. Next, the tread and sidewalls exhibited the same behaviour as observed on the rigid surface. In addition, we observed alterations in the balloon point with the tread geometry and the type of surface due to changes in the contact pressure. With carcass deformation, the volume of the tire was visibly reduced, which indicated that the IP could increase.