Electric Vehicle Components Research Articles

Extremum-Seeking-Based Ultra-local Model Predictive Control and Its Application to Electric Motor Speed Regulation

Electric vehicle (EV) market is rapidly expanding. As a critical component of EV, an electric motor needs to accurately follow a reference speed signal while respecting the electrical current constraint for safety. Those requirements are usually formulated as a model predictive control (MPC) problem. However, the performance of traditional model-based MPC depends on the accuracy of the system model, which may not always be guaranteed in reality. Therefore, we utilize a data-driven, model-free predictive control strategy, called ultra-local MPC (ULMPC), to control the speed of an electric motor. To further enhance the control performance of ULMPC, we employ the extremum-seeking control (ESC) to tune the control gain of the ULMPC online. Simulation and hardware experiments demonstrate the enhancement of the extremum-seeking-based ULMPC over a constant-gain ULMPC.

Research on real-time control strategy of multi-power flow of dual-mode power-split hybrid electric vehicle

With the continuous development of hybrid vehicle control technology, great progress has been made in the research of multi-power flow collaborative control. Due to the internal delay link of each power component, the role of energy storage element, and the limitation of electric power in the whole system, the inevitable delay characteristic of state transfer is caused. Therefore, the speed of multi-power flow control torque coordinated response of hybrid vehicles needs to be improved. The dual-mode power-split hybrid electric vehicle (DMPS-HEV) overall structure and working modes are analyzed, by adopting the combination of theory and experiment method. In order to solve the problem that the power components of dual-mode power-split hybrid electric vehicle cannot follow the optimal control command of the upper energy management strategy quickly due to the engine response delay, thus affecting the control effect of the upper energy management strategy. The research on torque coordination control strategy is carried out, the reference model of electromechanical composite drive is established, and the model reference adaptive coordination control strategy based on Lyapunov stability theory is proposed. The results show that the proposed model reference adaptive torque coordinated control strategy significantly improves the effect of engine response delay on the optimization effect of energy management strategy, and can achieve the control effect of the optimal control strategy of 93.58%. The test platform of the dual-mode power-split hybrid electric vehicle was built. The control system was built based on the rapid control prototype, and the data acquisition system was built based on the NI data acquisition module. The coordinated control strategy of the dual-mode power-split hybrid electric vehicle power system proposed in this paper was verified through the bench test to significantly improve the vehicle fuel economy and the real-time performance of the control strategy, which has a good practical value

Bharat Forge: entrepreneurial leadership triumphs disruptive times

Theoretical basis There had been many pieces of research on international expansion approaches, and they continued to grow. However, research about the firms belonging to emerging nations and that went global were still in the early stages. It had been argued that most theories on international expansion had focused on explaining the internationalization of large firms, majorly originating in developed countries. This case study offers an intriguing reading about an Indian MNC, successfully entering the developed markets and competing thereof amidst tough and complex world. Moreover, the leaders like Baba Kalyani met the stiff challenge from complexities and disruption successfully through entrepreneurial mindset. The case study offers insights into “Creating Value Through Entrepreneurial Leadership Framework”. Research methodology The case study has been developed through secondary data sources. The published online resources, the firm's annual reports formed the basis of the research work. Author accessed online news articles, auto component industry experts' views and reports from global consultancy firms, and auto industry body such as SIAM (Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers) reports helped the research. The views and interviews by promoters of the company are available online for deeper insights and analysis. Case overview/synopsis An Indian multinational, Bharat Forge Limited (BFL), was a shining example of achieving global manufacturing standards through perseverance and entrepreneurial leadership. For more than the past four decades, BFL faced complexities, uncertainties and disruptions multiple times, and every time, the business world saw a resurgent company, Bharat Forge. The company achieved growth through diversification, related and unrelated, acquisition, product innovation, portfolio expansion and expansion in domestic and global development. Competitive market, economic slowdown, innovation and technology disruption had not deterred BFL from growing into a worldwide auto component giant. BFL overcame all hurdles with grit and enterprise. It achieved a paradigm shift with over half the revenue from non-automotive sectors such as defence, electric vehicle components, e-mobility, power electronics and aluminium light-weighting. Complexity academic level This case is planned for MBA students, primarily in the second half of the course curriculum. It can be executed in marketing, strategic marketing and strategic management courses. The conceptual framework pertaining to corporate strategy, global expansion, diversification, product development, innovation, disruption, market development and entrepreneurial leadership can be taught through the case. The case is suitable for MBA executive students as well, in courses mentioned above in addition to courses such as strategic leadership.

A Novel Prediction Process of the Remaining Useful Life of Electric Vehicle Battery Using Real-World Data

In modern society, environmental sustainability is always a top priority, and thus electric vehicles (EVs) equipped with lithium-ion batteries are becoming more and more popular. As a key component of EVs, the remaining useful life of battery directly affects the demand of the EV supply chain. Accurate prediction of the remaining useful life (RUL) benefits not only EV users but also the battery inventory management. There are many existing methods to predict RUL based on state of health (SOH), but few of them are suitable for real-world data. There are several difficulties: (1) battery capacity is not easy to obtain in the real world; (2) most of these methods use the individual data for each battery, and the computing processes are difficult to perform in the cloud; (3) there is a lack of approaches for real-time SOH estimating and RUL predicting. This paper adopts several statistical methods to perform the prediction and compars the results of different models on experimental data (NASA dataset). Then, real-world data were implemented for an online process of RUL prediction. The main finding of this research is that the required CPU time was short enough to meet the daily usage after the real-world data was implemented for an online process of RUL prediction. The feasibility and precision of the prediction model can help to support the frequency control in power systems.

Effect of Phase Change Material on Dynamic Thermal Management Performance for Power Electronics Packages

Abstract High-temperature silicon carbide (SiC) die are the most critical and expensive component in electric vehicle (EV) power electronics (PE) packages and require both active and passive methods to dissipate heat during transient operation. The use of phase change materials (PCMs) to control the peak junction temperature of the SiC die and to buffer the temperature fluctuations in the package during simulated operation is modeled here. The latent heat storage potential of multiple PCM and PCM composites is explored in both single-sided and dual-sided package configurations. The results of this study show that the addition of PCM into two different styles of PE packages is an effective method for controlling the transient junction temperatures experienced during two different drive cycles. The addition of PCM in a single-sided package also serves to decrease temperature fluctuations experienced and may be used to reduce the necessary number of SiC die required for EVs, lowering the overall material cost and volume of the package by over 50%. PCM in a single-sided package may be nearly as effective as the double-sided cooling approach of a dual-sided package in the reduction of both peak junction temperature of SiC as well as controlling temperature variations between package layers.

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVING AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE UNDER DIFFERENT ROAD CONDITIONS

Electric vehicles (EV) has been introduced as an alternative to the conventional vehicle as a mid-range vehicle to the world due to environmental considerations and technology development. Many electric motors can be used as the main driver of electric vehicles. Induction Motor (IM) is one of these types. This search uses MatLab/Simulink program for modeling and simulating MITSUBISHI I-MIEV type vehicle as a model of city vehicle based on an IM as the main engine. Four cases were studied by simulating a complete (EV + IM) model with different slopes of road, wind speeds, different road types, and different speeds of vehicle. Simulation tests indicate the IM's ability to drive the electric vehicle in high stability. Thus the specifications of EV depend upon the specifications of IM used as the main drive for EV and mechanical components for EV.

Parameter matching and simulation analysis of power system of pure electric vehicle

The consumption of gasoline and diesel for cars is beyond imagination. Along with these problems comes environmental destruction. In order to achieve the two major indicators of power performance and economy, the most critical component of electric vehicles --- the power system is optimized and improved, and simulation is used to verify it on this basis‥ It can be concluded that the maximum vehicle speed is greater than 120km/h, the maximum gradeability exceeds 30%, the cruising range reaches 178km.

Test Method of Communication Protocol of Standard Group Components of Electric Vehicle Charging Equipment

In recent years, the rapid development of the electric vehicle industry has made the research on the communication protocol detection of the standard components of its charging equipment more and more important. The consistency of the charging communication determines whether the charging process can be carried out normally. During the charging process, the inconsistent communication messages of the standard components will directly lead to the failure of the charging process of the electric vehicle charging equipment. The purpose of this article is to study the communication protocol test method of the standard set of electric vehicle charging equipment. This article first analyzes the whole process of DC charging of electric vehicle charging equipment, and determines the detection method combining positive detection and negative detection according to the various stages of communication, and explains it. Then analyze and study the consistency of the communication protocol of the electric vehicle charging equipment standard group components, and determine the test indicators used to test and evaluate the DC charging communication consistency of the electric vehicle charging equipment. Finally, according to the analysis and research on the consistency of DC charging communication of electric vehicle charging equipment, a test plan for testing the consistency of communication is determined. The experimental data shows that the leakage current limit set in the experiment is 30mA, and the maximum error in the actual measurement is 1.1mA. The test results show that the controller on the cable can provide protection in case of leakage, and the measurement error is less than ±5mA.

Reliability Evaluation of Lithium-Ion Batteries for E-Mobility Applications from Practical and Technical Perspectives: A Case Study

Evaluation of the reliability of the components of electric vehicles (EVs) has been studied by international research centers, industry, and original equipment manufacturers over the last few years. Li-ion batteries are the main sensitive component of an EV’s E-power train. In other words, the Li-ion batteries for electromobility applications are one of the main components of an EV, which should be reliable and safe over the operational lifetime of the EV. Thus, investigating how to assess the reliability of the Li-ion battery has been a highly recommended task in most European projects. Moreover, with the increase in the number of new EVs made by European car companies, there has been a competition for market acquisition by these companies to win over customers and gain more market share. This article presents a comprehensive overview of the evaluation of the reliability of Li-ion batteries from practical and technical perspectives. Moreover, a case study for assessing reliability from practical and technical perspectives has been investigated.

A comprehensive review on energy storage in hybrid electric vehicle

The sharp inclination in the emissions from conventional vehicles contribute to a significant increase in environmental issues, besides the energy crises and low conversion efficiency leads to the evolution of electric vehicles (EV). Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) have efficient fuel economy and reduce the overall running cost, but the ultimate goal is to shift completely to the pure electric vehicle. Despite this, the main obstruction of HEV is energy storage capability. An EV requires high specific power (W/kg) and high specific energy (W·h/kg) to increase the distance travelled and reduce the time required for charging. The main focus of this paper is on the energy sources as these are the main components in EVs towards making them eco-friendly and cost-effective. Various topologies of EV technology such as HEVs, plug-in HEVs, and many more have been discussed. These topologies of EVs are based on the diverse combination of batteries, fuel cells, super-capacitor, flywheels, regenerative braking systems, which are used as energy sources and energy storage devices. • A review on various topologies of electric vehicle based on energy sources. • An overview on operating principles of energy storage system with its management. • An overview on challenges involved in adaptation of energy storage system.

Analyzing challenges for sustainable supply chain of electric vehicle batteries using a hybrid approach of Delphi and Best-Worst Method

Due to global warming and fast depletion of fossil fuels, the option of battery-operated electric vehicles (EVs) has emerged as one of the most popular alternatives for sustainable transport. In the present study, India is considered as a case country to explore the challenges in sustainable supply chain of electric vehicle batteries. India, being the second most populated country after China and having limited reserves of fossil fuels, has great potential to excel in electric vehicle supply chains. In addition, growth of electric vehicle markets in India is in the emerging phase. With increasing demand for EVs, the industry is facing many challenges for sustainable supply chain of electric vehicle batteries. The lithium-ion battery is a major component of electric vehicles. Many challenges for sustainability of electric vehicle battery supply chains have been extracted through literature review and discussions with industry experts. These challenges may be categorized as operational, technological, economic, environmental and social. Delphi technique is utilized to finalize major challenges for analysis. For further prioritization of these challenges, Best-Worst Method (BWM) is used. Finally, findings of the BWM are validated through an empirical study by collecting responses from 87 respondents. It is observed that ineffective recycling and reuse of batteries, disposal of batteries, and insufficient charging infrastructure are the three most important challenges in EV battery supply chain in India. The findings may be equally relevant in many developing countries having similar technological and infrastructure constraints. It will help policymakers in developing strategies for sustainable transport systems in developing countries.

Editorial for the special issue on advanced electric machines and drives for battery, hybrid, and fuel cell electric vehicles

The world is electrifying everything to achieve ‘deep decarbonization’ and better tackle global climate change. Electric vehicles (EVs) including battery, hybrid, and fuel cell EVs are expected to become the dominant transport medium within the next decades by replacing conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. As one of the key components in EVs, advanced electric machine and drive systems are one of the key enablers for this foreseeable transition to the electrification era. Significant research and development efforts have been made in constantly improving the power density, efficiency, and reliability with a reduced cost all over the world. Significant technological advancements have been achieved during the past two decades, yielding substantial scientific and practical knowledge on this topic.

High-Strength Steel for Electric Vehicles

Abstract A new high-strength steel developed for cold stamping addresses the challenges presented by materials traditionally used to manufacture electric vehicle components.

A column generation tailored to electric vehicle routing problem with nonlinear battery depreciation

Since the battery remains a significant cost component of electric vehicles (EVs), controlling the depreciation costs of EVs’ batteries is of great importance, especially from the perspective of the electric vehicle routing problem (EVRP). However, most existing studies on the EVRP have not explicitly considered the battery depreciation in the cost function; instead, it has been treated as a linear function of an EV’s travel distance or time. In fact, the depth-of-discharge (DOD) significantly affects the battery life and leads to a naturally nonlinear depreciation function, which can be used to calculate the battery life more accurately. In this paper, we adopt three battery depreciation methods to investigate and compare their influences on the EVRP with time windows (EVRPTW): (1) a nonlinear function of DOD; (2) a linear function of charge–discharge cycles; and (3) a linear function of total traveling distance. The first method is mainly studied, and the remaining two methods are verified as comparative analyses. Meanwhile, both full and partial charge policies are considered to formulate the problem. By combining the charging policies and battery depreciation methods, four mixed-integer programming models are formulated, aiming to minimize the total cost. To pursue exact solutions in acceptable computing time, a column generation algorithm (CG) that relies on four tailored labeling algorithms (LAs) is designed. The LAs are used to accelerate the calculation speed of the pricing problem. The most considerable difficulty of solving pricing problems lies in the complex endogenous relationships among recharging time, drivers’ waiting time, battery state-of-charge (SOC), battery depreciation, battery rated capacity, and driving distance. The LAs need to find a tradeoff among them and generate the shortest paths. Given this, we design specific and elaborate resource extension functions (REFs) for the four models, respectively, which is an extension to Desaulniers et al. (2016). Although the REFs are intricate, they work well with the help of dominance rules. Benchmark instances are performed to verify the efficiencies of the CG and LAs, which shows that instances with 25-nodes are solvable. In computational studies, we find that models considering the DOD can increase the battery life and decrease the total cost by 9%–10%. Moreover, several insights for better management of EV fleets are obtained.

A novel model-based damage detection method for lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries are one of the critical components of electric vehicles. Different factors, such as inconsistencies in cells and cold environments, can cause overcharge, overdischarge, and high-rate cycling at low temperatures in cells, which produce various levels of damage. The failure risk of cells continues to increase as damage accumulates. Therefore, early damage detection should be carried out to prevent the cells from further failure and even thermal runaway. A damage detection method based on the interactive multiple-model (IMM) algorithm is presented in this paper. Two first-order equivalent circuit models are applied to the IMM algorithm. The model parameters are obtained from a normal cell and a damaged cell produced under abusive operating conditions. Unscented Kalman filters based on the models above are employed to estimate the state of charge interactively. The innovations and covariances of the predicted measurement are utilized to calculate mode probabilities. The mode probabilities are compared with the threshold to determine whether a cell is damaged. The results of simulations and experiments indicate that the proposed method can effectively detect specific abuses and tolerate inconsistency in cells, thus providing an effective way of diagnosing cell damage.

X-in-the-Loop technology for research and development of electric vehicles

Introduction (problem statement and relevance). The article describes an X-in-the-Loop system intended for cyber-physical tests of electric vehicle's chassis components. The system allows connecting and synchronizing laboratories located in different geographic regions.The purpose of the study is to elaborate an X-in-the-Loop system allowing to perform geographically-scattered cyber-physical testing of the components belonging to an electric vehicle chassis.Methodology and research methods. The elaboration of the X-in-the-Loop system involves methods of cyber-physical testing whose functionality is extended by means of connecting and synchronizing the tested objects via a global network.Scientific novelty and results. A new research and development technology has been proposed for electric vehicles allowing for cooperation of geographically scattered laboratories within a real-time coherent environment that synchronizes tests of the electric vehicle components (both hardware and software) belonging to those laboratories.The practical significance. The proposed technology provides researchers and developers in the field of electric vehicles with advanced cyber-physical tools allowing them to increase the effectiveness of their cooperative work and shorten the time needed for producing development or research results.

A review on powertrain subsystems and charging technology in battery electric vehicles: Current and future trends

The transport industry is a major contributor to both local pollution and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs). The key challenge today is to mitigate the adverse impacts on the environment caused by road transportation. The volatile market prices and diminishing supplies of fuel have led to an unprecedented interest in battery electric vehicles (BEVs). In addition, improvements in motor efficiencies and significant advances in battery technology have made it easier for BEVs to compete with internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. This paper describes and assesses the latest technologies in different elements of the BEV: powertrain architectures, propulsion and regeneration systems, energy storage systems and charging techniques. The current and future trends of these technologies have been reviewed in detail. Finally, the key issue of electric vehicle component recycling (battery, motor and power electronics) has been discussed. Global emission regulations are pushing the industry towards zero or ultra-low emission vehicles. Thus, by 2025, most cars must have a considerable level of powertrain electrification. As the market share of electric vehicles increases, clear trends have emerged in the development of powertrain systems. However, some significant barriers must be overcome before appreciable market penetration can be achieved. The objective of the current study is to review and provide a complete picture of the current BEV technology and a framework to assist future research in the sector.

Innovative approach to electric vehicle diagnostics

Electromobility is associated with the ever faster development and introduction of new electric vehicles to the market. They use an electric motor to drive the wheels of the vehicle and the necessary electricity is stored in traction batteries. Electric vehicles have a different construction than traditional vehicles i.e. powered by internal combustion engines. For this reason, the manner of use, maintenance and service are different. Familiarization with selected operational issues of electric vehicles positively affects the reliability of their usage as well as safety and comfort of driving. An important component of electric vehicles is the traction battery. Its proper operation influences the long-term preservation of the initial energy capacity and, thus, the range of the vehicle. The article presents the tests of the state of traction batteries of a small electrically powered city vehicle. The vehicle, the batteries and the diagnostic devices used to assess the condition of the battery are described in detail. Based on the literature analysis and the observation of market trends, a fast and effective method of assessment of the technical condition of batteries in electric vehicles was proposed. The method has been tested on the selected vehicle. The technical condition of the battery in the vehicle was assessed after 4.5 years of operation and 30,000 km mileage.

In situ and operando force‐based atomic force microscopy for probing local functionality in energy storage materials

AbstractElectrochemical energy storage is the key enabling component of electric vehicles and solar‐/wind‐based energy technologies. The enhancement of energy stored requires the detailed understanding of charge storage mechanisms and local electrochemical and electromechanical phenomena over a variety of length scales from atoms to full cells. Classical electrochemical techniques, such as voltammetry, represent the macroscopic electrochemical properties, and consequently do not allow to extract important information about local electrochemical reactions, ions adsorption, intercalations, and transport. Understanding, controlling, and tuning the local electrochemical functionalities in functional energy materials require in situ/operando techniques which limit the use of structural and functional characterization techniques that provide local information. Here, force‐based atomic force microscopies (AFMs) have provided novel insights into locally probing electrochemical mechanisms on tens of nanometer and even molecular length scales and provide a viable pathway to probe electrochemical processes in situ/operando. In this review, we highlight the contributions in the development and application of force‐based AFM methods to elucidate the local charge storage mechanism in a variety of energy‐related materials. We will focus in particular on methods or AFM modalities in a liquid electrolyte environment.

Battery Management System for Electric Vehicle

The healthy system in any country is a sign of healthy lifestyle. The rapid depletion of fossil fuels and harmful effects on the environment are forcing the use of electric vehicles on a large scale. Now days the proper use of energy sources that can available in nature is very important and efficiency point of view electric vehicles are the very good choice. The battery is a basic component of electric vehicles that signals a step forward in the direction of stable mobility. Lithium chemistry is now known as the energy storage in electric vehicles. However, many research points are still open including the optimal selection of cell material and the development of electronic circuits and algorithms for more efficient use of batteries. This paper reviews battery performance and discusses the requirements and standards applicable to the battery management system(BMS). The architecture for implementation battery management and techniques for state of charge and cell balancing are reported.