Complex Working Memory Research Articles

A new toolbox to distinguish the sources of spatial memory error.

Studying the sources of errors in memory recall has proven invaluable for understanding the mechanisms of working memory (WM). While one-dimensional memory features (e.g., color, orientation) can be analyzed using existing mixture modeling toolboxes to separate the influence of imprecision, guessing, and misbinding (the tendency to confuse features that belong to different memoranda), such toolboxes are not currently available for two-dimensional spatial WM tasks.Here we present a method to isolate sources of spatial error in tasks where participants have to report the spatial location of an item in memory, using two-dimensional mixture models. The method recovers simulated parameters well and is robust to the influence of response distributions and biases, as well as number of nontargets and trials.To demonstrate the model, we fit data from a complex spatial WM task and show the recovered parameters correspond well with previous spatial WM findings and with recovered parameters on a one-dimensional analogue of this task, suggesting convergent validity for this two-dimensional modeling approach. Because the extra dimension allows greater separation of memoranda and responses, spatial tasks turn out to be much better for separating misbinding from imprecision and guessing than one-dimensional tasks.Code for these models is freely available in the MemToolbox2D package and is integrated to work with the commonly used MATLAB package MemToolbox.

Multisensory Facilitation of Working Memory Training.

Research suggests that memorization of multisensory stimuli benefits performance compared to memorization of unisensory stimuli; however, little is known about multisensory facilitation in the context of working memory (WM) training and transfer. To investigate this, 240 adults were randomly assigned to an N-back training task that consisted of visual-only stimuli, alternating visual and auditory blocks, or audio-visual (multisensory) stimuli, or to a passive control group. Participants in the active groups completed 13 sessions of N-back training (6.7 hours in total) and all groups completed a battery of WM tasks: untrained N-back tasks, Corsi Blocks, Sequencing, and Symmetry Span. The Multisensory group showed similar training N-level gain compared to the Visual Only group, and both of these groups outperformed the Alternating group on the training task. As expected, all three active groups significantly improved on untrained visual N-back tasks compared to the Control group. In contrast, the Multisensory group showed significantly greater gains on the Symmetry Span task and to a certain extent on the Sequencing task compared to other groups. These results tentatively suggest that incorporating multisensory objects in a WM training protocol can benefit performance on the training task and potentially facilitate transfer to complex WM span tasks.

Reading Ability and Working Memory in School-Age Children Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing Using Cochlear Implants and/or Hearing Aids: A 3-Year Follow-Up on Computer-Based Phonics Training

Purpose The aim of the current study was to investigate reading ability in children who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) using cochlear implants (CI) or hearing aids (HA) 3 years after computer-assisted phonics intervention. Reading ability was examined in relation to cognitive and audiological aspects and compared to a reference group of children with typical hearing (TH). Method Participants were 73 Swedish primary school children ( Mdn = 9 years). Fifty-five of the children were TH, and 18 children were DHH using CI ( n = 10) or HA ( n = 8). Twenty-seven of the children (all children who were DHH and nine of the children with TH) had participated in computer-based phonics intervention 3 years earlier. Children were assessed on word and nonword decoding, reading comprehension, and three working memory (WM) tasks. Age at diagnosis, age of amplification, and duration of unaided hearing loss formed the audiological variables. Results Comparable word decoding skills and reading comprehension were observed in all three groups (CI, HA, and TH). Children with CI showed strong and significant correlations between two aspects of WM capacity (phonological and complex WM) and all aspects of reading. For children with TH, similar but weaker correlations as in children with CI was observed, and correlations with visual WM were also evident. In children with HA only, complex WM correlated strongly and significantly with nonword decoding. Duration of unaided hearing loss was the single audiological variable that was significantly associated with reading. Conclusions This 3-year follow-up showed overall positive reading results at the group level in children who are DHH. However, some children still lag behind their peers with TH. Early hearing experience and intervention are stressed as crucial factors in preventing negative outcomes in these children.

Electrophysiological correlates of the Categorization Working Memory Span task in older adults

Older adults typically show poor performance in tasks assessing working memory (WM), a crucial cognitive mechanism. The present study examined the electrophysiological correlates of a classic complex WM task often used in studies involving older adults, the Categorization Working Memory Span task (CWMS), by means of event-related potentials. Thirty-five healthy, right-handed older adults (64–75 years) were presented the CWMS task while a 38-channel EEG was measured, and the N1, P1, and word recognition potential (RP) were analyzed on four regions of interest (ROIs) of 5 electrodes each. Additionally, late positive components (P200 and P300) were analyzed in midline ROIs of 3 electrodes each. Participants also executed an n-back task (2-back condition) and an objective performance-based task (the Ability to solve Problems in Everyday life [APE]). At a behavioral level, significant correlations were found between the CWMS, the 2-back, and the APE tests. At a physiological level, N1 and word RP showed greater bilateral amplitude in posterior electrodes, but the better the CWMS and the 2-back performance, the greater the RP amplitude on posterior left sites. The CWMS task induced a clear P200 component, but its amplitude was not correlated with participants’ behavioral performance. Altogether, notwithstanding that the bilateral RP pattern elicited by the CWMS is a clear marker of WM processing in older adults, better elderly performers on this complex WM test showed greater left hemisphere dominance to the automatic word RP.

Sentence Comprehension and Working Memory in Malay Adults

Studies on sentence comprehension have centered on understanding the intersection between language and cognition. The aim of the current study was to examine the association between complex sentence comprehension and working memory (WM) in Malay adults. We predicted that WM storage (as indexed by performance on a WM listening span task) would be invoked during the processing of complex Malay sentences (object relatives), but not simple sentences (subject-verb-object). Sixty adults participated in the study; 30 Malay- and 30 English native speakers. The experimental tasks were developed in both Malay and English versions for both groups respectively. Participants completed (i) two sets of sentence comprehension tasks (whereby comprehension was determined via selection of the agent of the sentence), and (ii) a conventional WM listening span task. Tasks were designed to be structurally similar in terms of length (within the language) and meaning (across both languages). Both groups performed significantly better on the comprehension of simple sentences as compared to complex sentences and obtained similar mean scores on the WM listening span task. For Malay comprehenders, WM storage did not significantly correlate with comprehension of simple sentences as well as complex sentences. The same correlation pattern was also revealed for the English comprehenders. Our predictions were partially borne out. Findings suggest that participants’ comprehension of complex sentences did not invite WM storage, as it would seem that both Malay and English participants were still able to comprehend these complex sentences without having to tax their WM capacity. Although we anticipated a relation, the absence of such an association is not entirely unexpected. Potential explanations are discussed in this article.

Working memory predictors of mathematics across the middle primary school years

BackgroundWork surrounding the relationship between visuospatial working memory (WM) and mathematics performance is gaining significant traction as a result of a focus on improving academic attainment.AimsThis study examined the relative contributions of verbal and visuospatial simple and complex WM measures to mathematics in primary school children aged 6–10 years.SampleA sample of 111 children in years 2–5 were assessed (M age = 100.06 months, SD = 14.47).MethodChildren were tested individually on all memory measures, followed by a separate mathematics testing session as a class group in the same assessment wave.Results and ConclusionsResults revealed an age‐dependent relationship, with a move towards visuospatial influence in older children. Further analyses demonstrated that backward word span and backward matrices contributed unique portions of variance of mathematics, regardless of the regression model specified. We discuss possible explanations for our preliminary findings in relation to the existing literature alongside their implications for educators and further research.

INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY LEARNING THROUGH VIEWING VIDEO

AbstractThere is growing evidence that L2 learners pick up new words while viewing video but little is known about the role of individual differences. This study explores incidental learning after viewing a French documentary containing 15 pseudowords and investigates whether learning is moderated by participants’ prior vocabulary knowledge and working memory. Sixty-three higher-intermediate learners of French participated in this study. Prior vocabulary knowledge was measured by means of a French meaning recognition test. Participants also took a forward digit-span (phonological short-term memory), a backward digit-span, and an operation-span task (complex working memory). After viewing the video, four surprise vocabulary tests on form and meaning were administered. Results revealed that learning gains occurred at the level of form and meaning recognition. Vocabulary knowledge was positively related to picking up new words from video. Complex working memory correlated with the recognition tests showing more incidental learning gains for learners with higher complex working memory.

EEG correlates of cognitive load in a multiple choice reaction task

The present study aimed to examine EEG correlates of cognitive load in a task, in which multiple stimulus‑response mappings have to be maintained in working memory (WM) combined with selective inhibition of irrelevant stimulus‑response mappings on every trial. Twenty‑four healthy younger adults had to perform choice reaction tasks differed in the number of S‑R mappings and motor response requirements. Performance was lower in the high load than in the low load condition. Performance decline at higher WM loads was accompanied by an increase of EEG power in delta, theta, and beta frequency bands and by a reduction in alpha band. The effect on alpha was generalized across all the electrodes. Correlations between EEG and performance were observed in the high load condition but not in the low load condition. Theta activity negatively correlated with reaction time, whereas positive correlations between beta activity and reaction time were found. The two frequency bands negatively correlated with each other at all electrodes. The results suggest that changes in alpha and theta power may be considered as the most sensitive indicators of cognitive load. The alpha reduction may be related to activation of widespread cortical areas which were recruited for performance of complex WM tasks. The beta increase, especially in the beta‑2 range, may partly be associated with activation of motor cortex due to difficulties in preparation and execution of motor responses. Theta increases may be considered as an index of facilitation of information processing in WM and improvements in higher‑order executive control, which in turn facilitates motor processes.

Complex syntax and working memory in children with specific learning difficulties

Working memory (WM) limitations are frequently reported for children with specific learning disorder (SLD). However, WM capacity influences more than literacy and numeracy, as research highlights the contribution of WM to language development, in particular syntax. In this article, the authors study the effect of syntactic intervention, i.e. syntactic elements intervening between filler and gap, on comprehension in children with SLD and evaluate the relationship of this effect to WM capacity. Specifically, they assess how these children comprehend wh-questions and relative clauses. Additionally, they examine how comprehension relates to WM, measured by backward digit recall. The authors report that a subgroup of children with SLD struggle to comprehend structures containing intervention, and that WM capacity influences performance in SLD. Their conclusion is that computing a syntactic relation in which a moved object and an intervening subject share a featural specification taxes the processing system of children with SLD who have WM limitations. Thus, syntactic difficulties, although not typically associated with SLD, may form part of the SLD profile, especially when WM capacity is reduced.

How Does Allocation of Emotional Stimuli Impact Working Memory Tasks? An Overview.

In this review, we investigated the influence of happy/pleasurable and sad/unpleasant emotional stimuli on working memory (WM) performance. Twenty-eight out of 356 articles were reviewed. We observed that emotional stimuli were used as mood inductors or as targets comprising the WM task. Results showed that WM modalities were influenced differently when updating, interference resolution, span, and complex tasks were applied. Specifically, we found distinct effects of emotional stimuli for updating tasks, in which (a) verbal modality seems to be impaired regardless of the emotional valence used compared to neutral stimuli, (b) visual updating processes appear to be improved by emotional stimuli as the targets of the task, and (c) emotional words improved interference resolution performance. As for storage, span, and complex WM tasks, sad/unpleasant emotional stimuli seem to decrease both verbal and visuospatial modalities when used as emotional inductors.

The associations between working memory and the effects of four different types of written corrective feedback

Working memory has been posited to play an important role in affecting the processes of writing (Kellogg, 1996). However, to date there has been limited research on its role in second language writing and no research on whether it is associated with the effects of written corrective feedback in second language learning. This study examines the associations between two types of working memory—complex working memory and phonological short-term memory—and the effectiveness of four types of written corrective feedback: direct corrective feedback, direct corrective feedback plus revision, metalinguistic explanation, and metalinguistic explanation plus revision. Seventy-nine adult learners of English as a foreign language performed three writing tasks and took two working memory tests: a reading span test (complex working memory) and a non-word span test (phonological short-term memory). The results showed that (1) complex working memory was a positive predictor of the effects of metalinguistic explanation and the effects of direct corrective feedback plus revision, and (2) phonological short-term memory was a negative predictor of the effects of direct corrective feedback plus revision. The results suggest that the role of working memory varies as a function of feedback type and that complex working memory and phonological short-term memory may have opposite associations with the effectiveness of written feedback.

The effect of frontoparietal paired associative stimulation on decision-making and working memory

Previous single-site neurostimulation experiments have unsuccessfully attempted to shift decision-making away from habitual control, a fast, inflexible cognitive strategy, towards goal-directed control, a flexible, though computationally expensive strategy. We employed a dual-target neurostimulation approach in 30 healthy participants, using cortico-cortical paired associative stimulation (ccPAS) to target two key nodes: lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) and intraparietal sulcus (IPS), to test whether decision-making can be artificially shifted from habitual toward goal-directed control. Participants received three active stimulations, delivered at least six days apart (each involving 100 paired pulses over the IPS and LPFC, varying the interstimulus interval): two interventional, time-relevant ccPAS (10 msec interval) and one control, non-time-relevant ccPAS (100 msec interval). Following stimulation, participants completed a sequential learning task, measuring goal-directed/habitual control, and a working memory task. IPS→LPFC ccPAS (stimulating IPS, then LPFC with a 10 msec interval) shifted decision-making from habitual toward goal-directed control, compared to control ccPAS. There was no effect of LPFC→IPS ccPAS, nor an effect of any PAS condition on working memory. Previous studies have shown ccPAS effects outside the motor domain targeting prefrontal regions on response inhibition, attentional bias, and alpha asymmetry. The present study measures the behavioural effects of parietal-prefrontal PAS, focusing on a highly complex decision-making task and working memory. If confirmed in larger studies, this would be the first instance of neurostimulation successfully shifting decision-making from habitual to goal-directed control, putatively via inducing long-term potentiation between the IPS and LPFC. However, we found no effect in the other direction (LPFC→IPS ccPAS), and no effect on working memory overall. PAS is a relatively new neuromodulatory technique in the cognitive arsenal, and this study could help guide future approaches in healthy and disordered decision-making.

The Influence of Individual Differences in Cognitive Ability on Working Memory Training Gains.

Working memory training research has produced mixed results in terms of finding benefits beyond the trained tasks (i.e., transfer). One potential limitation is that the research thus far has failed to isolate the specific combination of factors that makes working memory training work best. Individual differences in cognitive ability at pretest may be an important factor, suggesting possible aptitude-by-treatment interactions. Baseline cognitive ability could be (a) positively related, (b) negatively related, or (c) unrelated to training task improvements. The relationship between ability and training gains is important given the idea that larger training improvements should lead to greater transfer. However, the majority of training studies tend to be under-powered to examine individual differences. We pooled studies conducted in related labs to increase power while minimizing differences between studies. In the studies that were identified for this project, young adults completed complex span training and working memory and/or fluid intelligence as pretest measures. The combined samples from seven studies resulted in a sample of 192 participants. Analyses focused on the relationship between pretest cognitive ability and training performance across training days. There was no evidence that individuals lower in cognitive ability improved more than high-ability subjects on the training tasks. Instead, we found a positive relationship for both working memory and fluid intelligence measured at pretest with the amount of training improvement. In addition, the association between pretest working memory and working memory training performance appears to be domain-general - verbal and visuospatial content do not produce differential relationships.

Bilingualism and working memory performance: Evidence from a large-scale online study.

The bilingual executive advantage (BEA) hypothesis has attracted considerable research interest, but the findings are inconclusive. We addressed this issue in the domain of working memory (WM), as more complex WM tasks have been underrepresented in the previous literature. First, we compared early and late bilingual vs. monolingual WM performance. Second, we examined whether certain aspects of bilingual experience, such as language switching frequency, are related to bilinguals’ WM scores. Our online sample included 485 participants. They filled in an extensive questionnaire including background factors such as bilingualism and second language (L2) use, and performed 10 isomorphic verbal and visuospatial WM tasks that yielded three WM composite scores (visuospatial WM, verbal WM, n-back). For verbal and visuospatial WM composites, the group comparisons did not support the BEA hypothesis. N-back analysis showed an advantage of late bilinguals over monolinguals and early bilinguals, while the latter two groups did not differ. This between-groups analysis was followed by a regression analysis relating features of bilingual experience to n-back performance, but the results were non-significant in both bilingual groups. In sum, group differences supporting the BEA hypothesis were limited only to the n-back composite, and this composite was not predicted by bilingualism-related features. Moreover, Bayesian analyses did not give consistent support for the BEA hypothesis. Possible reasons for the failure to find support for the BEA hypothesis are discussed.

How taxonomic and thematic associations in semantic memory modulate recall in young through old-old adults.

The aim of the current study was to investigate how the taxonomic and thematic organization of semantic long-term memory affected the recall performance of adults and older participants on a complex semantic working memory (SWM) task. Taxonomic and thematic classification are the two main systems used to organize knowledge: taxonomic information is hierarchically structured and typically independent of space and time, whereas thematically grouped concepts are horizontal and strictly context-dependent. Generally, thematic connections (more intuitive and experience-based) are formed earlier in development, while taxonomic links (more abstract and logic-based) are acquired later. We set out to explore whether this developmental pattern reverses with age, hypothesizing that the more complex form of memory organization (i.e., taxonomic) would play a lesser role in facilitating recall in the old, whereas thematic organization would be better preserved. Participants (aged 18 to 85 years) were asked to recall 60 words in sets of increasing span; the words were featured in lists organized to force a taxonomic association, a thematic association, or no semantic association. The results clearly showed that task accuracy varied more across age groups for taxonomically linked items than for thematically linked ones. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Predictors of Effective Working Memory Training in Individuals with Alcohol Use Disorders.

Low working memory (WM) capacity is associated with alcohol use disorders (AUDs). The importance of WM to adaptive functioning has led to a recent influx of studies attempting to improve individual WM capacity using various cognitive training methods. The present study aimed to examine the efficacy of complex WM training for improving WM capacity among individuals with AUD. Individuals were randomized to complete either adaptive WM training or active control training. We applied a methodologically rigorous and structured approach, including a battery of near and moderate transfer measures in those with AUDs and a control group. Additionally, we examined cognitive factors (at baseline) and other predictors of adherence, training task improvement, and transfer. Results suggest improved WM in individuals with AUDs and controls, as evidenced by improved scores on several transfer measures, after adaptive WM training. However, individuals with AUDs showed poorer adherence and less improvement on the training tasks themselves. Neither IQ, WM, sex, nor condition predicted adherence. Level of training task performance, baseline WM, and IQ predicted transfer task improvement. This is the first study to rigorously examine both the efficacy of WM training in those with AUDs, and predictors of successful training program adherence and transfer in a large sample. Among study completers, results suggest that AUD status does not predict training improvement and transfer. However, AUD status did predict lower program adherence. WM training was more effective in those with higher cognitive ability at baseline. This study provides direct translation to the development of cognitive interventions for treating AUD.

Mindfulness-based training with transcranial direct current stimulation modulates neuronal resource allocation in working memory: A randomized pilot study with a nonequivalent control group

Mindfulness-based training (MBT) and transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) methods such as direct current stimulation (tDCS) have demonstrated promise for the augmentation of cognitive abilities. The current study investigated the potential compatibility of concurrent “electrical” MBT and tDCS (or eMBT) by testing its combined effects on behavioral and neurophysiological indices of working memory (WM) and attentional resource allocation. Thirty-four healthy participants were randomly assigned to either a MBT task with tDCS group (eMBT) or an active control training task with sham tDCS (Control) group. Training lasted 4-weeks, with up to twenty MBT sessions and with up to eight of those sessions that were eMBT sessions. Electroencephalography was acquired during varying WM load conditions using the n-back task (1-, 2-, 3-back), along with performance on complex WM span tasks (operation and symmetry span) and fluid intelligence measures (Ravens and Shipley) before and after training. Improved performance was observed only on the 3-back and spatial span tasks for eMBT but not the Control group. During 3-back performance in the eMBT group, an increase in P3 amplitude and theta power at electrode site Pz was also observed, along with a simultaneous decrease in frontal midline P3 amplitude and theta power compared to the Control group. These results are consistent with the neural efficiency hypothesis, where higher cognitive capacity was associated with more distributed brain activity (i.e., increase in parietal and decrease in frontal amplitudes). Future longitudinal studies are called upon to further examine the direct contributions of tDCS on MBT by assessing the differential effects of electrode montage, polarity, current strength and a direct contrast between the eMBT and MBT conditions on performance and neuroimaging outcome data. While preliminary, the current results provided evidence for the potential compatibility of using eMBT to modulate WM capacity through the allocation of attention and its neurophysiological correlates.

Mechanisms Underlying N-back Training: Response Consistency During Training Influences Training Outcome

In the last decade, working memory (WM) training has become one of the most intensively studied approaches in cognitive training research. Nevertheless, the systematic study of the transfer mechanisms that influence WM training outcome is still a relatively new approach despite its potential to stabilize training outcome. In this study, we introduce the beneficial effect of lower reaction time variability (RTV) during cognitive training on the effectiveness of the training. The aim of the present study was to investigate this mechanism by comparing the effects of traditional visual n-back training to those of an adapted consistency n-back training designed to reduce RTV. The consistency n-back training included direct reaction time feedback and an adaptive reaction time boundary system to elicit constant reaction time and thus increased attentional control during training. Seventy-seven participants (mean age 22.6 years) were randomly assigned to the two training groups and compared to a passive control group. In line with our theoretical assumptions, the enriched training demands of the consistency n-back task converted into higher near transfer on test versions of both training tasks and higher transfer on a structurally different and more complex WM task. More detailed results indicated that the traditional n-back training task promotes task-structure-dependent strategy acquisition (preventing far transfer), whereas the consistency n-back training promotes a less task-specific increase in WM efficiency. We discuss these two transfer mechanisms and conclude that low RTV during training increases transfer by enhancing the involvement of attentional control processes during training.

Under Which Conditions Can Older Participants Maintain Information In Working Memory?

ABSTRACTBackground/Study Context: Age-related deficits in working memory (WM) are commonly described in the literature. However, age-related deficits in WM maintenance mechanisms have received less attention. Based on recent models of WM, the present study aims at determining the conditions under which older adults are able to maintain information. More precisely, we wondered whether the cognitive load effect, taken as evidence for active maintenance in WM, is observed in normal aging and whether it interacts with the level of interference of a concurrent task.Methods: Young (mean age = 21.62; SD = 2.51) and healthy older (mean age = 71.92; SD = 5.18) participants performed a complex WM task. They had to remember five images while reading three words presented after each image. We compared trials in which every word was new (inducing high interference) with trials where words were repeated (inducing low interference). The pace at which the reading task was performed was either fast or slow, resulting in a high or a low cognitive load.Results: As suggested in the literature, young participants presented better performance at slow pace compared with fast pace but were not influenced by interference. Older participants also performed better at slow pace but only when interference was low. Interestingly, the older population showed negative correlations between slow-pace trials and switching abilities. Finally, although computational simulations with time-based resource sharing* (TBRS*) provide a good fit for young adult performance, several parameters had to be adjusted to fit the older participants’ performance, including duration of trace refreshing.Conclusion: Our findings suggest that a decrease in WM performance with aging can be explained by a difficulty in taking advantage of WM maintenance opportunities, especially in conditions of high interference. The computational investigations are consistent with this interpretation given that the parameters to be adjusted involve maintenance in WM. Finally, the computational approach seems a relevant way to address causes of forgetting in aging.

Cognitive predictors of adaptive functioning in children with symptomatic epilepsy

The current study sought to understand the contribution of the attention and working memory challenges experienced by children with active epilepsy without an intellectual disability to adaptive functioning (AF) while taking into account intellectual ability, co-occurring brain-based psychosocial diagnoses, and epilepsy-related variables. MethodsThe relationship of attention and working memory with AF was examined in 76 children with active epilepsy with intellectual ability above the 2nd percentile recruited from a tertiary care center. AF was measured using the Scales of Independent Behavior–Revised (SIB-R) and compared with norm-referenced data. Standardized clinical assessments of attention span, sustained attention, as well as basic and more complex working memory were administered to children. Commonality analysis was used to investigate the importance of the variables with respect to the prediction of AF and to construct parsimonious models to elucidate the factors most important in explaining AF. ResultsSeventy-one percent of parents reported that their child experienced mild to severe difficulties with overall AF. Similar proportions of children displayed limitations in domain-specific areas of AF (Motor, Social/Communication, Person Living, and Community Living). The reduced models for Broad and domain-specific AF produced a maximum of seven predictor variables, with little loss in overall explained variance compared to the full models. Intellectual ability was a powerful predictor of Broad and domain-specific AF. Complex working memory was the only other cognitive predictor retained in each of the parsimonious models of AF. Sustained attention and complex working memory explained a large amount of the total variance in Motor AF. Children with a previously diagnosed comorbidity displayed lower Social/Communication, Personal Living, and Broad AF than those without a diagnosis. At least one epilepsy-related variable appeared in each of the reduced models, with age of seizure onset and seizure type (generalized or partial) being the main predictors. ConclusionIntellectual ability was the most powerful predictor of AF in children with epilepsy whose intellectual functioning was above the 2nd percentile. Co-occurring brain-based cognitive and psychosocial issues experienced by children with living epilepsy, particularly complex working memory and diagnosed comorbidities, contribute to AF and may be amenable to intervention.