Complex Social Systems Research Articles

THE INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION AND DIGITALIZATION ON THE ESTABLISHMENT AND CONCEPTUAL DIGITAL SPORTS DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA

The relevance of the formation and digital sports development in China is in great importance, because the country is at the forefront of digital sports, which refers to the high-quality sport industry. With the development of technologies such as artificial intelligence, big data and cloud computing, the sports industry has undergone profound changes, contributing to the sports equipment emergence such as smart watches and smart sneakers, the continuous development of online sport platforms. At the state level, national digital sports development programs are adopted, which can promote the smart sport industry modernization, cultivate new economically growing points, form mass sports consumption, and provide new impetus to promote the high-quality sports industry development. Research methodology. To analyze digital sports concept in China, systemic and structural analystic methods are proposed, which allow considering digital sports as a complex social non-linear system that has several subsystems that constantly interact with the environment. The combination of synergistic and systemic methods and approaches allows us to explain the globalization and digitalization impact on the formation and development of the digital sports concept in China. The object of the research is the digital sports concept in China as a complex social, economic and cultural phenomenon. The subject of the research is the globalization and digitalization influence on the formation and development of the digital sports concept in China. The purpose of the research is theoretical and practical formation and development aspects of the digital sports concept in China. Research result. 1 Digital technologies of the sports sphere and sports experience as a factor in improving the sports concept in China are studied. 2. Data collection and processing phenomenon of athletes in China’s sports industry digital transformation is revealed. 3. Conceptual development of digital people-oriented sports at the state level is demonstrated. 4. Conceptual development of a healthy sports life in China is substantiated. 5. Building concept of China sports state and its industrial development in the digitalization context was studied. It was concluded that the high-quality sports industry development is an important energetic source for acceleration the sports state construction. The “Program for building a sports state” clearly states that by 2035, the sports industry will become a pillar of the national economy. Digital sports can promote the smart sport industry modernization, cultivate new economic growth points, direct and shape mass sports consumption, and provide new impetus to promote the high-quality sports industry development.

Life cycle sustainability assessment and circularity of geothermal power plants

Geothermal power generation is expected to increase fivefold worldwide by 2040 compared to 2018. The upcoming growth of geothermal power plants (GPPs) requires assessments of its role in tackling climate change and other impacts within complex environmental, economic and social systems. This study presents the first literature review of GPPs, including comparisons among different GPP technologies, based on life cycle sustainability and circular economy perspectives. A total of 76 core literature studies on geothermal-related topics are reviewed, including technology choices, and critically discussed in terms of their environmental, economic, social and circular economy aspects. Firstly, seven life cycle environmental impact indicators (global warming, acidification, eutrophication, human toxicity, ozone depletion, photochemical oxidation, and cumulative energy demand) are compared both within GPP technologies and to other conventional electricity generation technologies (such as coal and hydro). Secondly, economic sustainability is considered via life cycle costing, and the results show that geothermal could be economically competitive when compared to solar photovoltaic (PV), hydro, and even wind energy sources. Thirdly, social aspects are discussed considering 15 articles that evaluated concerns such as public acceptance, technology safety and local employment rate, although none rigorously considered a life cycle approach. Lastly, a total of 12 articles were found linking the circular economy with GPPs and elaborating on some of the ‘9Rs’ framework. To improve the effectiveness of future research, studies should focus on fulfilling major data gaps in literature such as the lack of detailed documentation for specific materials and background process choices in life cycle assessment databases. The development of GPPs can be an important alternative in efforts to decrease climate change impacts and pursue cleaner energy sources in countries where geothermal energy is more easily available.

THE CONCEPT OF DIGITAL MARKETING 4.0: EVOLUTION, CHARACTERISTICS, TYPOLOGY

The relevance of the research topic is that digital marketing 4.0 is a new type of marketing that has not been developed in the management and economic literature. Digital marketing 4.0 is developing in the era of new digital technologies, refers to a marketing method that uses the Internet, computer communication technologies and digital interactive media to achieve marketing goals. Digital marketing 4.0 uses advanced computer networking technology to seek the development of new markets and find new customers in the most efficient and cost-effective way. The term “digital marketing” first appeared in the 1990s, and since 2000, it has become more sophisticated and considered an effective way to create deeper and more interactive relationships with customers. The development of digital marketing continues to grow. The book “Marketing Revolution 4.0: From Traditional to Digital” emphasizes that digital marketing is another evolution of marketing in which demand management is the core of marketing. The purpose of the article is to analyze the theoretical and practical aspects of the formation and development of digital marketing in the era of marketing 3.0 and 4.0. Digital marketing 4.0 is the practice of promoting products and services through digital communication channels for timely, relevant, individual and cost-effective communication with consumers. Digital marketing includes many Internet marketing (network marketing) techniques and practices. Research result: It has been studied the evolution of the digital marketing concept from 1.0 to 4.0. The process of managing digital marketing as a complex social and communication system is revealed. The mechanism of digital marketing implementation is explained. The directions and strategies of digital marketing are analyzed. The typology of digital marketing is revealed. The future development of digital marketing is shown. Further research should be aimed at assessing the possibility and adaptation of digital marketing 4.0 developments for use in the digital economy and further development of domestic marketing in the digital age.

Reconceptualizing public choice inside a theory of complex social systems

Reconceptualizing public choice inside a theory of complex social systems

Методология цифрового социологического исследования: общественная система как базовый инструмент моделирования

The article analyzes the existing approaches to sociological research and provides assessment of some systemic gaps in the cycle of modeling sociological objects. The technique allowing modeling of complex social interactions based on the concept of «social system» is proposed. The modeling principles are developed, covering the levels of interaction with the environment, content and structure. The model of the social system, having a set of internal parameters, and the algorithm of its interaction with the environment are presented. To facilitate the perception of a large number of elements extracted from the collected empirical data, it is proposed to display the final result of the study on a special map. The primary testing, based on messages from the social network Twitter, allowed us to identify the elements of complex social systems and show the nature of their interaction. It is concluded that the methodology is applicable as a tool to monitor and to forecast complex social interactions.

The Power and Place Collaborative: Participatory Strategies for Scaling

To challenge unidirectional, colonizing, and capitalist frameworks of scaling systems change, this article offers alternative strategies for design practitioners, educators, and researchers interested in diverse forms of scaling change across complex social systems. In particular, the article analyzes a participatory and transdisciplinary approach to systemic design practice and education that illustrates the process and benefits of scaling across, deep, in, scree, and long. The Power and Place Collaborative is a community-first, equity-centered, emergent, and situated educational approach to designing complex social systems change. An analysis of the Collaborative’s dynamic processes, activities, and relationships provides a case study on the possibility of imagining, creating, and sustaining community partnerships that scale meaningful change at multiple levels and in diverse contexts. Drawing upon data collected from a mixed-method explanatory inquiry project, this article describes strategies for intentionally designing systems of change that can be scaled in multiple ways, including building relationships, transforming mental models, and co-creation of responses to complex problems. Design professionals seeking to develop assessment plans that capture the emergent, embodied, relational, and situated nature of systemic design and its outcomes will likely find this study’s longitudinal, mixed methods research approach to be an instructive disruption of conventional inquiry processes.

Los fundamentos teóricos de la intervención socioclínica en las organizaciones

Clinical sociology offers an approach that breaks with the paradigms stemming from the engineering and management sciences. The clinical approach is critical in the face of normative, quantitative, prescriptive approaches dominated by instrumental rationality and the commodification of human relations. She is interested in the singular, in subjectivity, in experience, in the sensitive, with an ethical concern. Its objective is to associate the actors concerned with the understanding of the problems, to involve them as subjects in the elaboration of the answers that they bring individually and collectively to the contradictions which cross them. She does not seek to model reality but to immerse herself in lived experience, as close as possible to concrete situations, the reality of work, the subjective apprehension of the problems encountered. It is part of a complex social system. Change is not prescribed, it is built in a process that involves, actively or passively, all the people concerned.

ENSURING COMPETENCE: ADDRESSING THE NEED FOR LGBTQ+ AGING EDUCATION

Abstract The continued demographic shifts in population aging are coupled with an increase in self-identified, LGBTQ+ individuals entering older age. While they share some common age-related experiences with non-LGBTQ+ individuals, they also face unique challenges as they age, including additional intersectional pressures beyond their sexual or gender identity. These challenges are exacerbated by pre-existing health inequities and heteronormative social support systems. Of particular concern is the ability to locate affirming and accessible social and health services. Gerontologists have a critical role in assisting older LGBTQ+ individuals in navigating complex social systems. To do so requires they have the appropriate education to develop the cultural humility needed to understand and assist these individuals. It necessitates the engagement of gerontology and geriatric education programs in educating future gerontologist professionals about LGBTQ+ older individuals. Critically, it requires the identification of appropriate instructors who are equipped to educate on LGBTQ+ aging topics.

Political and legal guarantees of human and civil security

In this article, the authors consider the essence of human and civil security, determine the factors that threaten it, and the consequences that violations of human rights, including the right to personal security, lead to. By personal security, the authors understand the state of absence of danger when interacting with objects of the external environment and the process of ensuring legal guarantees for the implementation of constitutional rights and freedoms. Security cannot exist without danger; it finds its existence with the emergence of threats. Personal security is threatened by wars, socio-economic instability, poverty, corruption, crime, domestic interethnic and religious conflicts, injustice, etc. The consequence is a violation of human rights, primarily the right to life and restrictions on its freedoms. The, the subject of this study is relevant. The purpose of this study was to find threats to personal security and analyse the possibilities of their elimination by political and legal means. The methodological basis of this paper was the dialectical approach, as well as several other methods: formal logical, systematic, formal legal, structural-functional. Results: personal security, as a special type of human and civil security, despite its close relationship with the security of society and the state, is an independent socio-legal phenomenon that requires special attention. Personal security is ensured, foremost, by the norms of constitutional, criminal, and administrative law. Restriction of the rights and freedoms of offenders, however, may be accompanied by restriction of the rights and freedoms of law-abiding citizens. The originality of this study lies in the investigation of political and legal guarantees of personal security and the identification of opportunities for its provision in the modern world, considering the principles of the rule of law, civil society, and justice. Security as a complex social phenomenon is an element of other complex social systems, which include a human, society, the state, as well as the economic, political, and spiritual spheres of public life. Security is an essential factor in the functioning and very existence of all social systems. The main subject that organizes the life of society is the state. The international community also plays an essential role in this process

Close to the Edge: From Crisis ToCritical Transitionsin Social Systems Theory

AbstractNiklas Luhmann has considered the concept of crisis as a negative self-description of modern society. However, in different argumentative contexts, he uses the concept to refer to operative processes in and between partial systems that were not further developed, such as interruption of systemic relations, crisis threshold, and rapid transitions. Drawing on theoretical analyses and empirical research, I argue that the theory of critical transitions developed in ecosystem research offers a conceptual horizon from which to obtain insights to understand and explain sudden changes in modern society. To this extent, I propose a mechanism of critical transitions in meaning-based social systems and discuss its components in light of the related literature. I conclude that, while preserving the concept of crisis as a negative self-description, that of critical transition is more adequate to address the factual, temporal, and social operations producing sudden shifts in complex social systems.

Group composition impacts reproductive output and population viability in captive white rhinoceros

AbstractCaptive breeding programmes can play an important role in the conservation of species threatened with extinction in the wild. White rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum, have suffered drastic declines due to illegal poaching across their range, and captive populations have the potential to safeguard this species from extinction. However, white rhinoceros birth rates in captivity have been extremely low, and there is substantial variation in breeding success between different institutions. A better understanding of the factors limiting their reproduction in captivity could improve their breeding management and conservation potential. This study used studbook data (n = 467) and comparisons with wild populations in Kenya (n = 236) to assess the breeding performance and viability of the European captive southern white rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum simum, population. Our results show that the European population is declining 2% annually under current demographic parameters. On average, just 10% of females calved annually, in comparison to almost 40% across wild populations. To become self‐sustaining, this must increase to a minimum of 17%, though reaching this target may lead to additional management challenges. Further analyses using studbook (n = 134 individuals) and multi‐institutional questionnaire data (n = 20 institutions) suggest that modifying the social structure of captive groups could improve female breeding success. Institutions housing larger groups had proportionally greater breeding success, and females were more likely to copulate if housed with another breeding female, and more receptive to bulls if housed in a group with a lower mean age. These findings highlight the importance of considering social conditions in captive breeding programmes, particularly for species with complex social systems and low reproductive rates.

The Faculty of Public Health: past, present and future.

This year we celebrate 50 years of the UK Faculty of Public Health (FPH). This commentary serves as a reflection on the history of the FPH, considering the origins of public health in the UK and the role of the FPH in shaping public health practice and policy. The genesis and evolution of the FPH are discussed, drawing upon reflections from past presidents and the wider literature. Historical shifts in the identity and roles of public health practitioners are also explored in the context of an increasingly complex and dynamic health and social care system. Key changes in public health practice are described, including the development of a multidisciplinary public health workforce and an increased focus on health inequalities over recent decades. Building upon this is a discussion of the current purpose of the FPH and perspectives on the future of the FPH amidst a changing public health landscape.

Social dilemmas of sociality due to beneficial and costly contagion.

Levels of sociality in nature vary widely. Some species are solitary; others live in family groups; some form complex multi-family societies. Increased levels of social interaction can allow for the spread of useful innovations and beneficial information, but can also facilitate the spread of harmful contagions, such as infectious diseases. It is natural to assume that these contagion processes shape the evolution of complex social systems, but an explicit account of the dynamics of sociality under selection pressure imposed by contagion remains elusive. We consider a model for the evolution of sociality strategies in the presence of both a beneficial and costly contagion. We study the dynamics of this model at three timescales: using a susceptible-infectious-susceptible (SIS) model to describe contagion spread for given sociality strategies, a replicator equation to study the changing fractions of two different levels of sociality, and an adaptive dynamics approach to study the long-time evolution of the population level of sociality. For a wide range of assumptions about the benefits and costs of infection, we identify a social dilemma: the evolutionarily-stable sociality strategy (ESS) is distinct from the collective optimum-the level of sociality that would be best for all individuals. In particular, the ESS level of social interaction is greater (respectively less) than the social optimum when the good contagion spreads more (respectively less) readily than the bad contagion. Our results shed light on how contagion shapes the evolution of social interaction, but reveals that evolution may not necessarily lead populations to social structures that are good for any or all.

INJURIES IN THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION – A CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY OF THE CHALLENGING EPIDEMIC.

Background: Injuries are an emerging public health problem that has grown into epidemic proportions. Many injuries are linked to social, environmental, cultural, and biological issues in causation; recognized as man-made and behaviour-linked disorders, and linked to sociodemographic transition. Prevention, acute care, and rehabilitation are the major challenges we are facing today. Materials & Methods: A crosssectional study was conducted at the National Injury Surveillance Centre (NISC) Department of Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi. Data was collected from 2861 participants (>18 years) of injury cases during 12 months (Jan-Dec 2019). Participants were selected using the Convenience Sampling Technique. The data were analysed statistically using SPSS software to assess the risk factors and pattern of injury among the population of the National Capital Region, Delhi. Results: In this study, the mean age was 36.6 years. The male to female ratio was 2.1:0.7. The age group 18-45 years is affected predominantly (71.1%). Around 48.8% were students (matriculation/junior school). 39.5% (1131) were unemployed. 1999 (69.9%) were accidental (unintentional), 1671 (58.4%) were having moderate to severe injury, 1675 (58.5%) happened onroad, and 1341 (46.9%) were having soft tissue injury. 1198 (41.9%) were RTI cases and 816 (28.5%) were assault/quarrel cases, the second most common mode of injury. Conclusion: With the realization that injuries are caused by a complex interaction among agents (vehicle, product), and human and environmental factors operating in complex social and economic systems, injury prevention and control depending on evidence-based research is gaining momentum. There is an urgent need for developing comprehensive, integrated, and intersectoral approaches based on scientic understanding.

Synchronization induced by directed higher-order interactions

Non-reciprocal interactions play a crucial role in many social and biological complex systems. While directionality has been thoroughly accounted for in networks with pairwise interactions, its effects in systems with higher-order interactions have not yet been explored as deserved. Here, we introduce the concept of M-directed hypergraphs, a general class of directed higher-order structures, which allows to investigate dynamical systems coupled through directed group interactions. As an application we study the synchronization of nonlinear oscillators on 1-directed hypergraphs, finding that directed higher-order interactions can destroy synchronization, but also stabilize otherwise unstable synchronized states.

The evolution of primate vocal communication: a social route

There is no doubt that different factors determine the evolutionary trajectory of a species' communication abilities. Beyond habitat, social life is likely a selection pressure. The hypothesis positing that living in a complex social system requires complex communication skills has gained ground. However, the measures used classically to tackle this question (i.e. number of call types and group size) fail to capture some of the subtleties of the evolution of communication systems. Integrative approaches comparing closely related species to highlight the possible relationship between the characteristics of their social systems, their ecological niche and associated vocal communication systems are required to further our understanding of this evolutionary puzzle. We first addressed this topic in two sympatric guenons, Diana monkeys and Campbell’s monkeys. Interspecies competition, and the niche specialisations this creates, appeared to be a key evolutionary driver of their repertoires. While most of their vocal units were shared, we found a diversification of alarm calls and socially meaningful vocal combinations, as well as a differential use of inconspicuous (less detectable) call structures. This was linked to differences in group size and degree of exposition to predators. Secondly, we compared the acoustic structures in macaques belonging to four species with contrasting social styles. We found that tolerant (Tonkean and crested) macaques displayed higher levels of vocal diversity (number of vocal units) and flexibility (degree of gradation) than intolerant (Japanese and rhesus) macaques in agonistic and affiliative (but not neutral) contexts. Lastly, because the core of communication is represented not only by what is expressed by an isolated caller, but also by the way vocal interactions are structured, we explored ‘conversational rules’ in apes. We found no relationship between classical social (group size, interaction rates) and vocal (repertoire size, call rates) complexity metrics. However, close call interaction patterns differed in line with the nature of societies. Orang-utan, the most solitary species, preferentially used repeated and isolated calls apparently outside of any vocal interactions. Chimpanzee, the most competitive species displayed a high proportion of overlapping vocalisations. Vocal turn-taking predominated in the most tolerant species (bonobo and gorilla). Even if primate vocal repertoires change slowly over evolutionary time, making them good phylogenetic indicators, socio-ecological niches may induce considerable local divergence at different levels: vocal repertoire composition, acoustic structure and contextual use of calls, and vocal interaction patterns.

Determinable and interpretable network representation for link prediction

As an intuitive description of complex physical, social, or brain systems, complex networks have fascinated scientists for decades. Recently, to abstract a network’s topological and dynamical attributes, network representation has been a prevalent technique, which can map a network or substructures (like nodes) into a low-dimensional vector space. Since its mainstream methods are mostly based on machine learning, a black box of an input-output data fitting mechanism, the learned vector’s dimension is indeterminable and the elements are not interpreted. Although massive efforts to cope with this issue have included, say, automated machine learning by computer scientists and learning theory by mathematicians, the root causes still remain unresolved. Consequently, enterprises need to spend enormous computing resources to work out a set of model hyperparameters that can bring good performance, and business personnel still finds difficulties in explaining the learned vector’s practical meaning. Given that, from a physical perspective, this article proposes two determinable and interpretable node representation methods. To evaluate their effectiveness and generalization, this article proposes Adaptive and Interpretable ProbS (AIProbS), a network-based model that can utilize node representations for link prediction. Experimental results showed that the AIProbS can reach state-of-the-art precision beyond baseline models on some small data whose distribution of training and test sets is usually not unified enough for machine learning methods to perform well. Besides, it can make a good trade-off with machine learning methods on precision, determinacy (or robustness), and interpretability. In practice, this work contributes to industrial companies without enough computing resources but who pursue good results based on small data during their early stage of development and who require high interpretability to better understand and carry out their business.

Longitudinal Dyadic Associations between Depressive Symptoms and Life Satisfaction among Chinese Married Couples and the Moderating Effect of Within-Dyad Age Discrepancy.

Family systems theory defines the family unit as a complex social system in which individual members influence and are influenced by each other. The current study aimed to investigate the longitudinal dyadic associations between life satisfaction and depressive symptoms among a sample of Chinese married couples and the moderating effect of within-dyad age discrepancy. The current sample included 5773 married couples who completed three waves of assessments of the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) in 2012, 2016, and 2018. The sample was categorized into two groups based on the within-dyad age discrepancy: the younger-wife–older-husband dyads (n = 4280, 74.13%) and the older-wife–younger-husband dyads (n = 1493, 25.86%). The longitudinal actor–partner interdependence models with multiple-group analysis were used to analyze the data. The results showed that a majority of actor effects were significant across time, and the two groups exhibited the same pattern among the actor effects. The older-wife–younger-husband dyads showed fewer significant partner effects than the younger-wife–older-husband dyads, and most partner effects indicated mutual rather than unidirectional influence. These findings yielded support for the statement of family systems theory that family members interconnect and that the development of one’s well-being needs to be understood in the context of the spouse’s well-being.

Dynamics of Representations Concerning Mechanisms of Formation of Social Identity of Youth: a Review of Publications of the RSCI

The subject of the research is the phenomenon of dissipation of the social identity of young people in modern Russian society. Purpose: to compare the reflection of this phenomenon in the academic and public consciousness. Hypothesis: the dynamics and structure of the idea of the social identity of young people at the present stage of Russia's development is not the same in the academic and public consciousness. The hypothesis was tested on the example of publications included in the RSCI database. There are two categories of publications: 1) scientific journals, dissertations, 2) conference materials. The first reflects ideas about social phenomena in the minds of the academic community; the second is in the mass consciousness of the general scientific community. Search depth 11 years (2012–2021). It included the annexation of Crimea to Russia, pension reform, the C0VID-19 pandemic, and the merger of two social support funds for the population (PF and FSS). The volume of empirical data amounted to 86341 titles of publications. The views of the authors of publications on the phenomenon under study were recorded according to five search queries: “social identity of young people”, “social security”, “social protection”, “social assistance”, “social support”. The algorithm of the relationship between these topics was studied using paired correlation analysis. It was found that the peak of publications for these requests coincided with the three-year period 2016–2018. The reflection of the problem of the social identity of young people in academic publications preceded its active discussion in conference proceedings by 4–6 years. Fundamental differences are found in the ideas about the social identity of young people in the academic and public consciousness. In scientific articles and dissertations, the social identity of young people is considered as a special case of self-organization of complex social systems, in conference materials – as a separate element of a hierarchically built deterministic financial system. The results obtained are regarded by us as proof of the correctness of the null hypothesis put forward. Possible areas of application of the results of the study: youth, social and demographic policy of the state at a new stage of socio-economic reforms. The limitation for the implementation of the research results in the practice of social management may be the effect of inertial public opinion and mass consciousness, as well as the financial interests of individual lobbies currently involved in the implementation of social projects. Directions for future research – targeted monitoring of the transformation of the mass in accordance with the requirements of the modern technological revolution.

A pachyderm perfume: odour encodes identity and group membership in African elephants

Group-living animals that live in complex social systems require effective modes of communication to maintain social cohesion, and several acoustic, olfactory and visual signaling systems have been described. Individuals need to discriminate between in- and out-group odour to both avoid inbreeding and to identify recipients for reciprocal behaviour. The presence of a unique group odour, identified in several social mammals, is a proposed mechanism whereby conspecifics can distinguish group from non-group members. African elephants (Loxodonta africana) live in stable, socially complex, multi-female, fission–fusion groups, characterized by female philopatry, male dispersal and linear dominance hierarchies. Elephant social behaviour suggests that individuals use odour to monitor the sex, reproductive status, location, health, identity and social status of conspecifics. To date, it is not clear what fixed or variable information is contained in African elephant secretions, and whether odour encodes kinship or group membership information. Here we use SPME GC–MS generated semiochemical profiles for temporal, buccal and genital secretions for 113 wild African elephants and test their relationship with measures of genetic relatedness. Our results reveal the existence of individual identity odour profiles in African elephants as well as a signature for age encoded in temporal gland and buccal secretions. Olfactory signatures for genetic relatedness were found in labial secretions of adult sisters. While group odour was not correlated with group genetic relatedness, our analysis identified “group membership” as a significant factor explaining chemical differences between social groups. Saturated and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), derived from key volatile compounds from bacterial fermentation, were identified in temporal, buccal and genital secretions suggesting that group odour in African elephants may be the result of bacterial elements of the gut microbiome. The frequent affiliative behavior of African elephants is posited as a likely mechanism for bacterial transmission. Our findings favour flexible group-specific bacterial odours, which have already been proposed for other social mammals and present a useful form of olfactory communication that promotes bond group cohesion among non-relatives in fission–fusion mammals.