Complex Social-ecological Systems Research Articles

Emerging customs: Small-scale fishing practices in Aceh, Indonesia

Off the western coast of Sumatra among the islands of Pulau Banyak, fishing is the primary occupation for the men of Haloban. They are self-described “traditional” fishers, using low-tech gear and small boats to catch fish, octopus, lobster, and other sealife in the nearby coral reefs and mangroves. Women also regularly venture out into the deep mud of the mangroves to collect clams. Their efforts to extract livelihoods and subsistence from the reefs take place in an open-access commons with few formal institutions or enforcement mechanisms to regulate resource use. While explicit regulations and customary limitations on fishing in the coral reef commons are lacking, Haloban fishers improvise some common etiquette and practices that are adaptable to the shifting context.This case study presents Haloban fishers' use of the commons as situated practices, unarticulated and embedded within a complex social–ecological system. These practices reflect fishers' understanding of, and relationship with, their environment, and may represent a nascent form of local “rules-in-use”, informing behavior without direct social mechanisms for enforcement. This paper presents research collected using ethnographic methods, including participant observation at sea. As NGOs and government agencies work to craft management plans that share use of the reefs with tourism and conservation, a better understanding of actual resource use and fishing practice may inform more nuanced, adaptable, and truly “local” community-based management.

Thriving and prosperous: How we rallied to confront collective challenges

Scenario analysis can be a useful tool to explore paths to a desirable future. This paper is a ‘future history’ describing the how stakeholders in the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence River basin of North America rallied to confront regional challenges 50years into the future (2013–2063). This future scenario was developed by considering how nine drivers of change (aquatic invasive species; biological and chemical contaminants; climate change; demographics and societal values; economy; energy; governance and geopolitics; water quantity; and technology) might impact the region. This “thriving and prosperous” scenario envisions that in the beginning, Great Lakes residents, scientists, and policymakers saw “the writing on the wall,” recognizing that past approaches to environmental policy failed to provide long-term environmental, social, and economic prosperity. In response, policymakers in the Great Lakes region began formulating and implementing new policies, but actions were scattered across the region and uncoordinated across geopolitical boundaries. Recognizing the need to coordinate their efforts, Great Lakes stakeholders began “marching in step” by agreeing on a common set of guiding principles for future policy actions. Building on this momentum, Great Lakes policymakers implemented a suite of regulations and initiatives that recognized the Great Lakes region as a complex social–ecological system. Between 2053 and 2063, the region began to reap the benefits of coordinated policy action. By 2063, the Great Lakes region showed how a long-term commitment to improving the environment can sustain a thriving and prosperous ecosystem and economy.

Multiple benefits and values of trees in urban landscapes in two towns in northern South Africa

Cities and towns can be conceptualised as complex social-ecological systems or landscapes that are composed of different spatial elements. Trees in urban landscapes provide a variety of tangible and intangible benefits (ecosystem services) that may be valued differently across diverse households and individuals. Here, we consider how the benefits and values of trees to urban residents vary across public and private spaces in three low income neighbourhoods in two medium-sized towns in northern South Africa. We find that the most asset poor residents in informal settlements derive significant benefits from the provisioning services offered by trees in natural green spaces on the ‘urban periphery’; in particular they value supplies of wood for energy, whilst also recognising the importance of regulating services such as shade. Trees in such spaces help these immigrants cope with a lack of infrastructure, services and disposable income after their move to the city. In new, low-cost housing neighbourhoods, the importance of trees in providing shade and shelter in gardens is emphasised due to the hot and dusty nature of these settlements, while residents in older township neighbourhoods make more mention of the aesthetic value of trees in private spaces as well as the fruits they provide. In all neighbourhoods, attitudes towards trees in public spaces were mixed because of their perceived association with crime, although low income households did make extensive use of tree products from natural areas. The relevance of the results for urban planning and greening in low income areas is discussed.

Education and access to fish but not economic development predict chimpanzee and mammal occurrence in West Africa

We are in the midst of an unprecedented environmental crisis. Landscapes have become complex social-ecological systems in which anthropogenic activities and biophysical factors interact across multiple scales. The integration of socio-economic development processes into conservation strategies as a means of sustainable resource management requires a deep understanding of the interactions between human activities and natural processes. Attempts to combine socio-economic and biological datasets for analyses, however, have frequently been hampered by spatial, temporal and methodological incompatibilities. In this study, we investigate the effects of human well-being on their environment in Liberia, West Africa. More specifically, we tested whether regions with improved community and household wealth, better education and access to market towns and fish protein, had higher levels of large mammal species richness and densities of the flagship species of West African forests, the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus). Controlling for human pressure, forest cover and cultural diversity, we found that high literacy rates and affordable fish protein correlated with high chimpanzee density. On the other hand, areas with better economic and infrastructure development coincided with reduced large mammal species richness compared to less developed areas. This indicates that wildlife depletion rates can only be understood by including economic and social constraints. These results are important for informing effective future conservation management strategies in Liberia and elsewhere in tropical Africa.

Determining the relative importance of climatic drivers on spring phenology in grassland ecosystems of semi-arid areas.

Understanding climate controls on spring phenology in grassland ecosystems is critically important in predicting the impacts of future climate change on grassland productivity and carbon storage. The third-generation Global Inventory Monitoring and Modeling System (GIMMS3g) normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data were applied to derive the start of the growing season (SOS) from 1982-2010 in grassland ecosystems of Ordos, a typical semi-arid area in China. Then, the conditional Granger causality method was utilized to quantify the directed functional connectivity between key climatic drivers and the SOS. The results show that the asymmetric Gaussian (AG) function is better in reducing noise of NDVI time series than the double logistic (DL) function within our study area. The southeastern Ordos has earlier occurrence and lower variability of the SOS, whereas the northwestern Ordos has later occurrence and higher variability of the SOS. The research also reveals that spring precipitation has stronger causal connectivity with the SOS than other climatic factors over different grassland ecosystem types. There is no statistically significant trend across the study area, while the similar pattern is observed for spring precipitation. Our study highlights the link of spring phenology with different grassland types, and the use of coupling remote sensing and econometric tools. With the dramatic increase in global change research, Granger causality method augurs well for further development and application of time-series modeling of complex social-ecological systems at the intersection of remote sensing and landscape changes.

Simple models for managing complex social–ecological systems: The Landscape Futures Analysis Tool (LFAT)

Integrated modelling and assessment can facilitate exploration of complex social–ecological interactions and quantify trade-offs in regional policy, planning, and management options. However, there have been challenges in its acceptance and adoption for supporting decisions. Here we overcome this implementation gap through the development of an interactive online tool called the Landscape Futures Analysis Tool (LFAT) (http://www.lfat.org.au/). Identifying four high priority regional management issues; agricultural production, carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation and weed management, we developed a series of simple models to explore them through a range of environmental and economic scenarios including climate change, carbon price, agricultural commodity price, and production costs. These models were implemented within the LFAT to allow users to select, query and explore combinations of key variables and examine their impact on each of the management issues through a range of interactive maps and summary statistics.

Towards polycentric governance of small‐scale fisheries: insights from the new ‘Management Plans’ policy in Chile

Small-scale fisheries are increasingly conceptualized as complex social–ecological systems (Folke et al., 2005; Basurto et al., 2013). Management of complex social–ecological systems requires knowledge to monitor resource availability, make decisions about their allocation, and respond to feedbacks from the system at multiple social and ecological scales (Berkes et al., 2003; Robinson and Berkes, 2011). Typically, no one agency, organization or group is likely to have the full range of knowledge needed for effective management of complex social–ecological systems (Berkes et al., 2003; Gelcich et al., 2006). Thus, there is a pressing need to develop environmental governance models, the structures and processes by which people in societies make decisions and share power with respect to the environment (Folke et al., 2005), which can allow partnerships and cooperation among agencies and stakeholders to confront the management of such complex systems (Berkes, 2009; Gelcich et al., 2010; Robinson and Berkes, 2011). A possible way to deal with environmental governance of complex marine social–ecological systems is to incentivize shifts towards the development of new multi-level, polycentric forms of governance, partly through government-designed decentralization (Ostrom, 2010). ‘Polycentric’ connotes many centres of decision making, that are independent of each other (Ostrom et al., 1961). Polycentric systems are thus characterized by multiple governing authorities at differing levels rather than a monocentric unit (Ostrom, 1999). Each unit within a polycentric system exercises considerable independence to make norms and rules within a specific domain (such as in a family, a firm, a local government, a state or province, or a region; Ostrom et al., 1961). In theory, with such approaches, problems associated with non-compliance, power inequalities and inappropriate discrimination can be better addressed, and major investments made towards information and innovations (Ostrom, 2010). Although no governance system is perfect, research has shown how polycentric systems can have considerable advantages given their mechanisms for mutual monitoring, learning and adaptation over time (Ostrom et al., 1961; Galaz et al., 2012). Rather than relying on a single type or level of governance, a shift towards polycentrism would be

Can conservation contracts co-exist with change? Payment for ecosystem services in the context of adaptive decision-making and sustainability.

This paper considers the ability of payment for ecosystem services (PES) programs to operate in the context of dynamic and complex social-ecological systems. Drawing on the experiences of two different PES programs in Latin America, we examine how PES institutions fit with the tenets of adaptive decision-making for sustainable resource management. We identify how the program goals and the connection to the market influence the incentive structure, information gathering, learning and feedback processes, and the structure of decision-making rights, specifically the ability to make and modify resource-use rules. Although limited in their generalizability, findings from the two case studies suggest a tension between the contractual model of PES and adaptive decision-making in natural resource systems. PES programs are not inherently decentralized, flexible management tools, as PES contracts tend to restrict decision-making rights and offer minimal flexibility mechanisms to change resource-use practices over the duration of the contract period. Furthermore, PES design and flexibility is heavily dependent on the goals and mission of the buyer and the respective market. If PES is to facilitate sustainable resource management, greater attention is needed to assess how the institutional design of the PES contracts influence the motivation and capacity of participants and program officers alike to adaptively manage the respective resource systems.

A dynamic assessment of water scarcity risk in the Lower Brahmaputra River Basin: An integrated approach

Many international river basins are likely to experience increasing water scarcity over the coming decades. This water scarcity is not rooted only in the limitation of resources, i.e. the shortage in the availability of freshwater relative to water demand, but also on social factors (e.g. flawed water planning and management approaches, institutional incapability to provide water services, unsustainable economic policies). Therefore, the assessment of water scarcity risks is not limited to the assessment of physical water supply and demand, but it requires also consideration of several socio-economic factors. In this study, we provide a comprehensive dynamic assessment of water scarcity risks for the Lower Brahmaputra river basin, a region where the hydrological impact of climate change is expected to be particularly strong and population pressure is high. The basin area of Brahmaputra River lies among four different countries: China, India, Bangladesh and Bhutan. For water scarcity assessment, we propose a novel integration of different approaches: (i) the assessment of water scarcity risk, considering complex social-ecological system; (ii) the analysis of dynamic behaviour of the system; (iii) exploration of participatory approach in which limited number of stakeholders identify the most relevant issues with reference to water scarcity risks and provide their preferences for the aggregation of risk assessment indicators. Results show that water scarcity risk is expected to slightly increase and to fluctuate remarkably as a function of the hazard signal. Social indicators show trends that can at least partially compensate the increasing trend of the drought index. The results of this study are intended to be used for contributing to planned adaptation of water resources systems, in Lower Brahmaputra River Basin.

Resilience scientists as change-makers—Growing the middle ground between science and advocacy?

Since the beginning of the 20th century, the understanding of the relationship between science and policy making has altered significantly from one that separated the ‘truth seeking’ domain of science to one characterized by an increasingly close integration of science into the domain of politics, complete with contested values and opinions. Resilience scientists have only recently entered this discussion, but a coherent approach to purposeful institutional change and policy remains elusive, despite core theoretical concepts focusing on the scale and ‘fit’ of governance institutions for complex social–ecological systems. While the appropriateness of value-driven science is highly contested across all scientific fields, this paper argues that articulating a coherent position is of particular relevance for resilience scientists and others, who use a theoretical framework that is infused with a specific value-set, such as ecosystem and species protection, conservation, inclusiveness and participatory governance processes. Outlining both the challenges of navigating the science–policy interface and a set of approaches resilience scientists could take in response to these challenges, we seek to initiate reflection and debate within the resilience science community concerning their own role in growing the middle ground between science and politics, and conducting science within that hybrid space.

Effect of woody-plant encroachment on livestock production in North and South America.

A large fraction of the world grasslands and savannas are undergoing a rapid shift from herbaceous to woody-plant dominance. This land-cover change is expected to lead to a loss in livestock production (LP), but the impacts of woody-plant encroachment on this crucial ecosystem service have not been assessed. We evaluate how tree cover (TC) has affected LP at large spatial scales in rangelands of contrasting social-economic characteristics in the United States and Argentina. Our models indicate that in areas of high productivity, a 1% increase in TC results in a reduction in LP ranging from 0.6 to 1.6 reproductive cows (Rc) per km(2). Mean LP in the United States is 27 Rc per km(2), so a 1% increase in TC results in a 2.5% decrease in mean LP. This effect is large considering that woody-plant cover has been described as increasing at 0.5% to 2% per y. On the contrary, in areas of low productivity, increased TC had a positive effect on LP. Our results also show that ecological factors account for a larger fraction of LP variability in Argentinean than in US rangelands. Differences in the relative importance of ecological versus nonecological drivers of LP in Argentina and the United States suggest that the valuation of ecosystem services between these two rangelands might be different. Current management strategies in Argentina are likely designed to maximize LP for various reasons we are unable to explore in this effort, whereas land managers in the United States may be optimizing multiple ecosystem services, including conservation or recreation, alongside LP.

Agricultural biodiversity, social-ecological systems and sustainable diets.

The stark observation of the co-existence of undernourishment, nutrient deficiencies and overweight and obesity, the triple burden of malnutrition, is inviting us to reconsider health and nutrition as the primary goal and final endpoint of food systems. Agriculture and the food industry have made remarkable advances in the past decades. However, their development has not entirely fulfilled health and nutritional needs, and moreover, they have generated substantial collateral losses in agricultural biodiversity. Simultaneously, several regions are experiencing unprecedented weather events caused by climate change and habitat depletion, in turn putting at risk global food and nutrition security. This coincidence of food crises with increasing environmental degradation suggests an urgent need for novel analyses and new paradigms. The sustainable diets concept proposes a research and policy agenda that strives towards a sustainable use of human and natural resources for food and nutrition security, highlighting the preeminent role of consumers in defining sustainable options and the importance of biodiversity in nutrition. Food systems act as complex social-ecological systems, involving multiple interactions between human and natural components. Nutritional patterns and environment structure are interconnected in a mutual dynamic of changes. The systemic nature of these interactions calls for multidimensional approaches and integrated assessment and simulation tools to guide change. This paper proposes a review and conceptual modelling framework that articulate the synergies and tradeoffs between dietary diversity, widely recognised as key for healthy diets, and agricultural biodiversity and associated ecosystem functions, crucial resilience factors to climate and global changes.

Water Governance Challenges in New Mexico's Middle Rio Grande Valley: A Resilience Assessment

Climate change presents an unprecedented challenge to traditional forms of water governance in the American Southwest. This Article centers on one watershed struggling to meet these challenges — New Mexico’s Middle Rio Grande (MRG). The MRG includes the urban environments of Albuquerque, Santa Fe, as well as surrounding small towns, and rural agricultural communities. This Article provides an overview of the MRG as a complex and dynamic social-ecological system and what challenges may arise under expected hydrologic changes. Employing concepts from resilience theory, it describes the challenges facing water governance in the MRG, placing particular emphasis on the current function and capacity of existing governance structures. After a basic overview of resilience as a paradigm for understanding the dynamics of an SES, it provides a brief overview of the current governance framework for the MRG. It then provides a description of the key social and ecological system elements and their associated interactions. Having identified the key social and ecological elements involved, we discuss possible key interactions among them, including “tipping points” — key thresholds that, if crossed, may threaten the long-term stability of the MRG. We then look at the implications of these interactions and tipping points for natural resource managers and discuss whether the current governance structures are equipped for the challenges ahead. This includes a discussion regarding the potential for and current investment in the use of adaptive management in the MRG.

Transdisciplinary research on environmental governance: A view from the inside

Abstract Working effectively across boundaries is a critical skill for researchers focused on environmental governance in complex social–ecological systems, but challenges remain in the acquisition of such skills given the current structure of traditional disciplinary training. In an effort to contribute to improved coordination of research across disciplinary boundaries, we provide an insiders’ view based on our experience participating in a two-year transdisciplinary research initiative designed to address the changing nature of environmental governance in the Intermountain West region of the United States. We discuss transdisciplinary research as a promising approach for addressing complex, real-world problems and identify several challenges. We analyze our transdisciplinary research process using the ideas of boundary setting, boundary concepts, and boundary objects. We conclude with reflections and lessons learned, emphasizing the importance of our external boundary setting, the role of funding, and the inexorable link between individual commitment and project success.

Integrating complexity in the management of human-wildlife encounters

The unpredictability of human behavior toward wildlife, coupled with changes in human behavior over space and time, are integral challenges of today's wildlife managers to meet administrative mandates. These challenges are exacerbated by extensive urban development and human population growth along with recent successes in wildlife conservation, leading to increasing encounters, and conflicts, between humans and wildlife. Thus, wildlife management is increasingly concerned with managing the co-existence of people and wildlife in a diminishing wild. However, attempting to analyze human–wildlife encounters, or solve human–wildlife conflicts, continues to be problematic. No structured behavior theory exists on how to address these management challenges. This study is a first attempt to do so through assembling and analyzing existing social-psychological, human-environment, and human–wildlife behavior theories and models in regard to their relevance to human–wildlife encounters. We illustrate the need to move from individualistic social and ecological approaches to an integrated complexity-theory based approach. We argue that human–wildlife encounters can only be understood and modified toward resilient relationships when treated as a complex social-ecological system. Key factors identified across literature impacting formation of positive and negative perceptions and behavior decision-making during an encounter are: cognition and emotions formed through beliefs and experiences across scales, barriers and benefits to specific behavior choices, and social thresholds. Using this multi-disciplinary approach, models and theories are drawn upon to develop the Integrated Adaptive Behavior Model of human–wildlife encounters.

Water-conservation policies in perspective: insights from a Q-method study in Salta, Argentina

Narratives and discourses on issues such as water management and other complex social–ecological systems respond partly to people's worldviews or social perspectives. Knowledge of these perspectives might help increase the rate of success of specific initiatives related to water conservation and could be an important tool to improve water governance. A study performed in the city of Salta, Argentina, revealed the existence of four social perspectives on issues related to water management. Perspectives were obtained with Q methodology by interviewing 29 local stakeholders. Participants sorted 68 statements organized around four themes (service provider; water rights; public participation; water availability) according to their degree of agreement or disagreement. The findings support our contention that there are clear links between social perspectives and the rate of success of some water policies implemented by the local water utility in the past 15 years, in particular the promotion and use of household water meters and awareness campaigns launched to reduce water consumption. We show that the limited success of these initiatives was partly due to ignorance or disregard of social perspectives on water management.

Advocacy coalitions, REDD+, and forest governance in Papua New Guinea: how likely is transformational change?

Tropical forests in developing countries are increasingly being valued for their role in carbon sequestration. Such interest is reflected in the emergence of international initiatives for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+). REDD+ requires addressing both tropical forests as complex social-ecological systems and the multiple sectors involved in tropical forest resources, which may necessitate transformational change away from business-as-usual approaches to forest governance. We studied the potential for REDD+ to mobilize an influential coalition of actors promoting transformational change in forest governance in Papua New Guinea (PNG), a leading proponent of REDD+ internationally. Combining policy network approaches with the advocacy coalition framework, we identified four advocacy coalitions in the REDD+ policy domain in PNG and estimated the influence of each coalition. We found the most influential advocacy coalition is promoting the status quo rather than governance reforms capable of reducing deforestations and forest degradation, leading us to suggest that business as usual is the dominant perspective in the REDD+ policy domain in PNG. This may explain why, despite the large amount of REDD+ rhetoric, there has been only modest change in formal policy or practice in PNG to date. However, we did find influential coalitions calling for transformational change. Although these are currently minority coalitions, we identified several pathways through which they could increase their power to realize transformational change

The Chilika Lagoon Social-Ecological System: An Historical Analysis

Innovations in social-ecological research require novel approaches to conceive change in human-environment systems. The study of history constitutes an important element of this process. First, using the Chilika Lagoon small-scale fisheries in India, as a case, in this paper I reflect on the appropriateness of a social-ecological perspective for understanding economic history. Second, I examine here how changes in various components of the lagoon’s social-ecological system influenced and shaped economic history and the political processes surrounding it. I then discuss the two-way linkages between economic history and social-ecological processes to highlight that the components of a social-ecological system, including the economic aspects, follow an interactive and interdependent trajectory such that their combined impacts have important implications for human-environment connections and sustainability of the system as a whole. Social, ecological, economic, and political components of a system are interlinked and may jointly contribute to the shaping of specific histories. Based on this synthesis, I offer insights to move beyond theoretical, methodological, and disciplinary boundaries as an overarching approach, an inclusive lens, to study change in complex social-ecological systems.

Productive Diversification and Sustainable Use of Complex Social-Ecological Systems: A Comparative Study of Indigenous and Settler Communities in the Bolivian Amazon

Agricultural and forest productive diversification depends on multiple socioeconomic drivers—like knowledge, migration, productive capacity, and market—that shape productive strategies and influence their ecological impacts. Our comparison of indigenous and settlers allows a better understanding of how societies develop different diversification strategies in similar ecological contexts and how the related socioeconomic aspects of diversification are associated with land cover change. Our results suggest that although indigenous people cause less deforestation and diversify more, diversification is not a direct driver of deforestation reduction. A multidimensional approach linking sociocognitive, economic, and ecological patterns of diversification helps explain this contradiction.

Water, resilience and the law: From general concepts and governance design principles to actionable mechanisms

• Reviews literature on law and resilience, adaptive governance and management. • Discusses practical examples of legal mechanisms for adaptive water resources management. • Assesses aptness of different measures according to different levels of uncertainty. • General design principles are operationalised in legislative frameworks. • Monitoring, data sharing, financial and technical capacity are pre-requisites. Climate change has significant ramifications for water law and governance, yet, there is strong evidence that legal regulations have often failed to protect environments or promote sustainable development. Scholars have increasingly suggested that the preservation and restoration paradigms of legislation and regulation are no longer adequate for climate change related challenges in complex and cross-scale social-ecological systems. This is namely due to past assumptions of stationarity, uniformitarianism and the perception of ecosystem change as predictable and reversible. This paper reviews the literature on law and resilience and then presents and discusses a set of practical examples of legal mechanisms from the water resources management sector, identified according to a set of guiding principles from the literature on adaptive capacity, adaptive governance as well as adaptive and integrated water resources management. It then assesses the aptness of these different measures according to scientific evidence of increased uncertainty and changing ecological baselines. A review of the best practice examples demonstrates that there are a number of best practice examples attempting to integrate adaptive elements of flexibility, iterativity, connectivity and subsidiarity into a variety of legislative mechanisms, suggesting that there is not as significant a tension between resilience and the law as many scholars have suggested. However, while many of the mechanisms may indeed be suitable for addressing challenges relating to current levels of change and uncertainty, analysis across a broader range of uncertainty highlights challenges relating to more irreversible changes associated with greater levels of warming. Furthermore the paper identifies a set of pre-requisites that are fundamental to the successful implementation of such mechanisms, namely monitoring and data sharing, financial and technical capacity, particularly in nations that are most at risk with the least data infrastructure. The article aims to contribute to both theory and practice, enabling policy makers to translate resilience based terminology and adaptive governance principles into clear instructions for incorporating uncertainty into legislation and policy design.