Complex Morphology Research Articles

1.63-billion-year-old multicellular eukaryotes from the Chuanlinggou Formation in North China.

Multicellularity is key to the functional and ecological success of the Eukarya, underpinning much of their modern diversity in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Despite the widespread occurrence of simple multicellular organisms among eukaryotes, when this innovation arose remains an open question. Here, we report cellularly preserved multicellular microfossils (Qingshania magnifica) from the ~1635-million-year-old Chuanlinggou Formation, North China. The fossils consist of large uniseriate, unbranched filaments with cell diameters up to 190 micrometers; spheroidal structures, possibly spores, occur within some cells. In combination with spectroscopic characteristics, the large size and morphological complexity of these fossils support their interpretation as eukaryotes, likely photosynthetic, based on comparisons with extant organisms. The occurrence of multicellular eukaryotes in Paleoproterozoic rocks not much younger than those containing the oldest unambiguous evidence of eukaryotes as a whole supports the hypothesis that simple multicellularity arose early in eukaryotic history, as much as a billion years before complex multicellular organisms diversified in the oceans.

Dual-Attention Model Fusing CNN and Transformer for Pancreas Segmentation.

Pancreatic cancer is a highly malignant cancer of the digestive tract and is rapidly progressing and spreading clinically. Automatic and accurate pancreatic tissue segmentation in abdominal CT images is essential for the early diagnosis of pancreatic-related diseases. It is challenging that the pancreas is small in size and complex in morphology. To address this problem, we propose a dual-attention model fusing CNN and Transformer to effectively activate pancreas-related features expression. The CNN structure weights the importance of pancreas-related features at the channel level and weakens the background information. Transformer feature aggregation module constructs spatial correlations among long-distance pixels from a global perspective. This study is validated on the NIH-TCIA dataset and achieved a mean Dice Similarity Coefficient of 85.82%, which is outperforming than the state-of-the-art methods. The visualization of surface distance also demonstrates the effective segmentation of pancreas boundary details by the proposed model.

EVALUATION OF THE CONDYLAR POSITION IN RELATION TO THE DIFFERENT MALOCCLUSIONS OF A STUDENT POPULATION

Studying the position of the condyle in the glenoid cavity is an important aspect of achieving the diagnosis and the treatment plan in dentistry. The posterior position of the condyle in the glenoid cavity is not a completely reliable predictor of the lack or appearance of disc displacement, although they are related (1). The TMJ is a small joint with a complex morphology surrounded by bony tissues that create a superimposition of images, especially in the petrous region of the temporal bone, the mastoid process and the articular eminence (1). Studies on the ideal position of the condyles have shown that the healthiest condyle-fossa relationship in which the condyle is centered anteriorly in the mandibular fossa. The following research aims to evaluate the condylar position in relation to different malocclusions of thirty-two students of the Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Cuenca.The research has a quantitative approach, carried out by means of numerical analysis. The population used was thirty-two students from the Faculty of Odontology in the University of Cuenca, aged between 21 and 29 years, who underwent cone beam computed tomography. The research was carried out as a descriptive retrospective sample and provides systematic information. The research used is of a primary source, using CBCT scans obtained from an image bank at the CERIOM Radiology Centre in the city of Cuenca, and the tomographic examination will be imported in DICOM format into the RadiAnt DICOM Viewer software (64-bit).

Real-time three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography in quantification of left ventricular dyssynchrony

Aim. To compare endocardial and epicardial left ventricular (LV) pacing using real-time electrocardiography (ECG)-synchronized three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE).Methods. Experimental intraoperative study included 88 points obtained from 12 patients with compensated heart failure of II-IV functional class NYHA (LV ejection fraction < 35%) and cardiac resynchronization therapy indications - ECG pattern of complete left bundle branch block (LBBB) and QRS complex duration > 150 ms. During isolated LV pacing as part of cardiac resynchronization therapy implantation procedure endocardial and epicardial stimulation points matched under fluoroscopic control using quadripolar coronary sinus leads and endocardial electrodes for temporary pacing were obtained. The overall number of corresponding pacing sites included 44 endocardial and 44 epicardial stimulation positions. The mean age of patients was 68.5 [63; 73.5] years, 83% males (n=10). Before study enrollment, 12-channel ECG, echocardiography, and a six-minute walk test were performed for all participants along with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and control coronary angiography if indicated. The prevalence of coronary heart disease was 50% (n=6) while dilated cardiomyopathy was the most common etiology of chronic heart failure in other cases. Intraoperative ECG with estimation of paced QRS complex morphology at each point was registered via LabSystem Pro Electrophysiological Recording System (Bard Electrophysiology, USA). 3DE was performed using TomTec and Philips Qlab 3DQ Advanced software (Philips Medical Systems, USA).Results. Three-dimensional parametric imaging of LV regional segmental excursion and myocardial contractility using 3DE revealed statistically significant difference in semi-quantative parameters such as ExcAvg (p<0.001), ExcMax (p=0.001), ExcMin (p<0.001) and LV ejection fraction based on 3D modelling (p=0.003) while endocardial pacing was more beneficial. During the course of endocardial stimulation, the 3DE dyssynchrony index estimated at the 2nd stimulation site was also significantly lower (p=0.03). Identical dyssynchrony parameters valid for the 16 and 12-segment 3D models (SDI-16, Tmsv-12SD) (at p=0.06) demonstrated only a tendency for significant difference. The duration of QRS complex at the time of endocardial pacing was significantly shorter (<190 [179;215] ms) (p=0.0008). Semi-quantitative and quantitative 3DE parameters showed the benefit of endocardial pacing resulting in cardiac contractility improvement with less dyssynchrony and LV volume reducing during intraoperative period.Conclusion. Endocardial pacing has potential benefit over the epicardial pacing represented by intraoperative dynamics of LV global and local contractility, intraventricular dyssynchrony estimated by 3DE and also ECG criteria. 3DE is helpful in more precise and reproducibile determing of late activation zone for target LV lead placement that is more manoeuvrable in case of endocardial stimulation.

Towards the classification of mass distributions with complex morphology in terms of topological parameters (from granular matter to cosmology)

Towards the classification of mass distributions with complex morphology in terms of topological parameters (from granular matter to cosmology)

Mechanical advantage of subsidiary cells depends on the stomatal complex structure

Structural features of stomatal complexes influencing the mechanical advantage of subsidiary cells were studied. Light, scanning and transmission electron microscopy were used to research the morphology of Fagraea ceilanica stomatal complexes. Their guard cells are located on subsidiary cells. The walls of the subsidiary cells are thickened unevenly. The inner tangential walls are thin and most extensive as compared to other walls of these cells. The data obtained allowed a 3D model of F. ceilanica stomatal complex to be constructed. To elucidate the interaction between the guard and subsidiary cells during stomatal movements, we have applied modelling using the finite-element method. According to the modelling results, the mechanical advantage of the subsidiary cells depends on mutual location of the guard and subsidiary cells, uneven thickening, area and rigidity of the subsidiary cell walls and presence of substomatal chambers, into which the inner tangential walls of the subsidiary cells can bulge when turgor pressure in these cells increases. The modelling results were confirmed by the observed deformations in actual stomatal complex cells of F. ceilanica. The decrease in mechanical advantage of the subsidiary cells ensures stoma opening in the conditions of excessive saturation of the epidermis with water, for example, in the conditions of tropical rainforests.

Fabrication of Self-Wrinkling Polymer Films with Tunable Patterns through an Interfacial-Fuming-Induced Surface Instability Process.

Inspired by the superglue fuming method for fingerprint collection, this study developed a novel interfacial-fuming-induced surface instability process to generate wrinkled patterns on polymeric substrates. High-electronegativity groups are introduced on the substrate surface to initiate the polymerization of monomer vapors, such as ethyl cyanoacrylate, which results in the formation of a stiff poly(ethyl cyanoacrylate) capping layer. Moreover, interfacial polymerization resulted in the covalent bonding of the substrate, which led to the volumetric shrinkage of the composite and the accumulation of compressive strain. This process ultimately resulted in the development and stabilization of wrinkled surface morphologies. The authors systematically examined parameters such as the modulus of the epoxy substrate, prestrain, the flow rate of fuming, and operating temperature. The aforementioned technique can be easily applied to architectures with complex outer morphologies and inner surfaces, thereby enabling the construction of surface patterns under ambient conditions without vacuum limitations or precise process control. This study is the first to combine fuming-induced interfacial polymerization with surface instability to create robust wrinkles. The proposed method enables the fabrication of intricate microwrinkled patterns and has considerable potential for use in various practical applications, including microfluidics, optical components, bioinspired adhesive devices, and interfacial engineering.

The absence of a trade-off between morphological and syntactic complexity

The hypothesis that all languages are equally complex often invokes a trade-off principle, according to which if a language is more complex in one particular domain, it will be simpler in another different domain. In this paper, we use data from WALS to test the existence of a trade-off between two specific domains: morphology and syntax. Contrary to widespread views, we did not find a negative correlation between these two language domains, but in fact a positive correlation. At the same time, this positive correlation seems to be driven by some language families, and it disappears when one considers purely morphological and purely syntactic features only. We discuss these findings in relation to ongoing research about language complexity, and in particular, the effects of factors external to language on linguistic structure.

Comparative anatomy, histochemistry and phytochemistry of three species of the genus Tarenaya Raf.

This study addresses the morphological similarities and taxonomic complexity of the genus Tarenaya Raf. of the family Cleomaceae Bercht. & J. Presl as well as the medicinal use of their species. The research compares potential anatomical diagnostic characters of the vegetative organs of species Tarenaya aculeata, Tarenaya diffusa, and Tarenaya spinosa to determine authenticity parameters. The study also carried out histochemical and phytochemical analyses of leaf blades to explore the medicinal use of these species. Semipermanent slides containing cross sections of the stems, petioles, and leaf blades, as well as paradermal sections of leaf blades, were prepared. The analyses were carried out in light and polarized optical microscopy. The histochemical analysis included different reagents depending on the target metabolite, which were analyzed by optical and fluorescence microscopy. Phytochemical tests of the methanolic extracts of the leaves were performed using thin layer chromatography. Anatomical characterization showed the characters of general occurrence in the family Cleomaceae and those that allow the differentiation of T. aculeata, T. diffusa, and T. spinosa. Histochemistry revealed the synthesis and/or storage sites of the metabolites and phytochemical tests; it was possible to observe the presence of different metabolites. The results bring comparative data on the anatomical and histochemical characterization of the species, thus increasing the taxonomic knowledge of the genus Tarenaya. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The comparative anatomy of three Tarenaya from Brazil was studied. Anatomical differences in different vegetative organs differ species. Differences in histochemistry and phytochemistry.

Implementation of Fluorescent-Protein-Based Quantification Analysis in L-Form Bacteria.

Cell-wall-less (L-form) bacteria exhibit morphological complexity and heterogeneity, complicating quantitative analysis of them under internal and external stimuli. Stable and efficient labeling is needed for the fluorescence-based quantitative cell analysis of L-forms during growth and proliferation. Here, we evaluated the expression of multiple fluorescent proteins (FPs) under different promoters in the Bacillus subtilis L-form strain LR2 using confocal microscopy and imaging flow cytometry. Among others, Pylb-derived NBP3510 showed a superior performance for inducing several FPs including EGFP and mKO2 in both the wild-type and L-form strains. Moreover, NBP3510 was also active in Escherichia coli and its L-form strain NC-7. Employing these established FP-labeled strains, we demonstrated distinct morphologies in the L-form bacteria in a quantitative manner. Given cell-wall-deficient bacteria are considered protocell and synthetic cell models, the generated cell lines in our work could be valuable for L-form-based research.

Stress-Adaptive Stiffening Structures Inspired by Diatoms: A Parametric Solution for Lightweight Surfaces.

The intricate and highly complex morphologies of diatom frustules have long captured the attention of biomimetic researchers, initiating innovation in engineering solutions. This study investigates the potential of diatom-inspired surface stiffeners to determine whether the introduced innovative strategy is a viable alternative for addressing engineering challenges demanding enhanced stiffness. This interdisciplinary study focuses on the computer-aided generation of stress-adaptive lightweight structures aimed at optimizing bending stiffness. Through a comprehensive microscopical analysis, morphological characteristics of diatom frustules were identified and abstracted to be applied to a reference model using computer-aided methods and simulated to analyze their mechanical behavior under load-bearing conditions. Afterwards, the models are compared against a conventional engineering approach. The most promising biomimetic approach is successfully automated, extending its applicability to non-planar surfaces and diverse boundary conditions. It yields notable improvement in bending stiffness, which manifests in a decrease of displacement by approximately 93% in comparison to the reference model with an equivalent total mass. Nonetheless, for the specific load case considered, the engineering approach yields the least displacement. Although certain applications may favor conventional methods, the presented approach holds promise for scenarios subjected to varying stresses, necessitating lightweight and robust solutions.

Quantifying the effects of the microphysical properties of black carbon on the determination of brown carbon using measurements at multiple wavelengths

Abstract. Methods based on the absorption Ångström exponent (AAE) are widely used to estimate the absorption by brown carbon (BrC), and the estimated absorption by BrC can be significantly different from 0, even for pure black carbon (BC). However, few studies have systematically quantified the effects of BC microphysical properties. Moreover, the conditions under which AAE-based methods are applicable are still unclear. In this work, we used BC models partially coated with non-absorbing materials to calculate the total absorption. Since the total absorption is entirely due to BC, the estimated BrC absorption should be 0 if the retrieval methods are accurate. Thus, the ratio of the estimated BrC absorption to BC absorption (ABSBrC) should be the proportion of the BC absorption that is incorrectly attributed to BrC. The results show that a BC AAE of 1 can generally provide reasonable estimates for freshly emitted BC, since ABSBrC is generally in the range of −4.8 % to 2.7 % during that period. However, when BC aerosols are aged, ABSBrC can sometimes reach about 38.7 %. The wavelength dependence of the AAE (WDA) method does not necessarily improve the estimates; sometimes a negative ABSBrC of about −40.8 % is found for partially coated BC. By combining simulations of a global chemical transport model, this work also quantified the effects of BC microphysical properties on BrC global aerosol absorption optical depth (AAOD) estimates. The AAE = 1 method sometimes leads to a misassigned global mean AAOD of about −0.43–0.46×10-3 if the BC aerosols have a complex morphology. The WDA method does not necessarily improve the estimates. In our cases, the WDA methods based on spherical models could lead to a global-mean misassigned AAOD range of about −0.87–0.04×10-3. At the regional scale, the AAE = 1 method sometimes leads to a distributed AAOD of about −7.3 to 5.7×10-3 in some specific regions. Mie-theory-based WDA methods lead to an estimated AAOD error of about -22×10-3 in some regions (e.g., East Asia). This work also showed that the misattributed BrC absorption would lead to substantial uncertainties in the estimation of the global direct radiative forcing (DRF) of absorbing aerosols from different sources.

Ion effects on co-existing pseudo-phases in aqueous surfactant solutions: cryo-TEM, rheometry, and quantification

HypothesisSpecific alkaline cation effects control the area per headgroup of alkylester sulphates, which modifies the spontaneous packing of the surfactants. The resulting effective packing minimizes the total bending energy frustration and results in a Boltzmann distribution of coexisting pseudo-phases. These pseudo-phases constitute of micelles and other structures of complex morphology: cylindrical sections, end-caps, branching points, and bilayers, all in dynamic equilibrium. According to our model, excess of end-caps or excess of branching points lead to low viscosity, whereas comparable amounts of both structures lead to viscosity maxima. Relative occurrence of branching points and end-caps is the molecular mechanism at the origin of the salt-sensitive viscosity peak in the “salt-curve” (viscosity against salt concentration at fixed surfactant concentration). Up to now, and as indicated in former papers, this has been a pure model without microscopic verification. ExperimentsIn this work, we introduce explicit counting of the number of coexisting pseudo-phases as observed by state-of-the-art cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM). The model system used, i.e., sodium laurylethersulfate (SLES)/salt/water, is very common as part of cosmetic formulations. As added salts, we used Li+, Na+, K+, and Cs+ chlorides. In parallel to imaging, we measured the macroscopic viscosities of the different solutions. FindingsWith cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), we imaged a variety of morphologies (pseudo-phases) in the different aqueous surfactant/salt solutions: cylindrical micelles with end-caps, discs surrounded by “rims”, entangled thread-like micelles with branching points, networks with gliding branching points, and bilayers. The relative chemical potentials of these morphologies could be approximated simply by counting the relative proportion of their occurrence. This simple multi-scale approach avoids any ad-hoc “specificity” assumption of ions, and is based on the bending energy model in an extended version of the Benedek “ladder model”. It is capable of explaining and even quantifying the location of all viscosity peaks in the “salt-curves” for the different cations investigated, thus confirming the previously proposed model experimentally, and – thanks to cryo-TEM – for the first time on a microscopic scale. Moreover, this approach can also be applied when the added cations lead to newly observed pseudo-phases, such as discs and vesicles. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that cryo-TEM is used, together with a mesoscopic model, to describe a macroscopic property such as viscosity and specific ion effects on it, without any a priori assumption about these effects. So, in total, we could a) confirm the predictions of the previously developed model, b) use cryo-TEM imaging and viscosity measurements to predict and find unusual morphologies when varying the cations of the added salt, and c) count the pseudo-phases in cryo-TEM micrographs to quantitatively explain the different nanostructures.

The artificial intelligence-based model ANORAK improves histopathological grading of lung adenocarcinoma.

The introduction of the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer grading system has furthered interest in histopathological grading for risk stratification in lung adenocarcinoma. Complex morphology and high intratumoral heterogeneity present challenges to pathologists, prompting the development of artificial intelligence (AI) methods. Here we developed ANORAK (pyrAmid pooliNg crOss stReam Attention networK), encoding multiresolution inputs with an attention mechanism, to delineate growth patterns from hematoxylin and eosin-stained slides. In 1,372 lung adenocarcinomas across four independent cohorts, AI-based grading was prognostic of disease-free survival, and further assisted pathologists by consistently improving prognostication in stage I tumors. Tumors with discrepant patterns between AI and pathologists had notably higher intratumoral heterogeneity. Furthermore, ANORAK facilitates the morphological and spatial assessment of the acinar pattern, capturing acinus variations with pattern transition. Collectively, our AI method enabled the precision quantification and morphology investigation of growth patterns, reflecting intratumoral histological transitions in lung adenocarcinoma.

Robust algorithm for the detection and classification of QRS complexes with different morphologies using the continuous spline wavelet transform with automatic scale detection

This work presents an algorithm for the detection and classification of QRS complexes based on the continuous wavelet transform (CWT) with splines. This approach can evaluate the CWT at any integer scale and the analysis is not restricted to powers of two. The QRS detector comprises four stages: implementation of CWT with splines, detection of QRS complexes, searching for undetected QRS complexes, and correction of the R wave peak location in detected QRS complexes. After, the onsets and ends of the QRS complexes are detected. The algorithm was evaluated with synthetic ECG and with the manually annotated databases: MIT-BIH Arrhythmia, European ST-T, QT and PTB Diagnostic ECG. Evaluation results of the QRS detector were: MIT-BIH arrhythmia database (109,447 beats analyzed), sensitivity Se = 99.72% and positive predictivity P+ = 99.87%; European ST-T database (790522 beats analyzed), Se = 99.92% and P+ = 99.55% and QT database (86498 beats analyzed), Se = 99.97% and P+ = 99.99%. To evaluate the delineation algorithm of the QRS onset (Qi) and QRS end (J) with the QT and PTB Diagnostic ECG databases, the mean and standard deviations of the differences between the automatic and manual annotated location of these points were calculated. The standard deviations were close to the accepted tolerances for deviations determined by the CSE experts. The proposed algorithm is robust to noise, artifacts and baseline drifts, classifies QRS complexes, automatically selects the CWT scale according to the sampling frequency of the ECG record used, and adapts to changes in the heart rate, amplitude and morphology of QRS complexes.

Coupled heat transfers resolution by Monte Carlo in urban geometry including direct and diffuse solar irradiations

Modelling transient combined heat transfer in complex urban geometry is a key step to predict human exposure or energy consumption and to quantify the effect of climate change mitigation and adaptation measures. A difficulty lies in the possibility for a model to scale up and integrate large and complex urban morphology. We develop a probabilistic approach to solve heat transfers with the Monte Carlo method that is insensitive to the complexity of both the urban geometry and the boundary conditions. The integral formulation that includes random walks for each heat transfer mode is presented and the computation of absorbed solar irradiations at walls with the double randomization technique is detailed. Numerical validations are given through comparisons with deterministic method results for single and two-layer slabs, but also a three-dimensional thermal bridge geometry. The developed probabilistic heat transfer model is then used in a demonstration heat wave scenario where are computed: the outdoor mean radiant temperature showing the influence of trees; and the indoor average wall temperature showing the influence of solar gains through windows.

Scanning electron microscopic exploration of intricate pollen morphology and antimicrobial potentials of gourd family.

This study employs scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to delve into the intricate pollen morphology of Cucurbitaceae (Gourd Family) species, unraveling the nuanced details of their structural features. Concurrently, the research investigates the antimicrobial potentials encoded within these pollen grains, shedding light on their possible applications in the realm of natural antimicrobial agents. Cucurbitaceae plants showcases significant antibacterial and antifungal potentials, underscoring its potential as a source for novel antimicrobial compounds. This research endeavors to provide a comprehensive analysis of pollen morphometry in 12 Cucurbitaceous species, with the primary goal of identifying pollen morpho-types to enrich the taxonomic understanding of the Cucurbitaceae. Following the Erdtman protocol, the study involved processing, measuring, and capturing pollen grains using SEM techniques. Qualitative data were analyzed to evaluate the variations in pollen types, size, and exine stratified sculptured layering. The pollen grains exhibit characteristics of being monads, ranging in size from medium to very large, with the prevailing shape being prolate-spheroidal in six species. Notably, the maximum polar axis diameter was recorded for Cucurbita pepo (106.3 μm), while the minimum was observed in Zehneria anomala (32.6 μm). The grains of Cucurbitaceae exhibit diverse surface patterns, including reticulate columellae, reticulate, verrucate-scabrate, verrucate-gemmate, echinate baculate, reticulate-perforate, and micro-reticulate. This SEM investigation illuminates the intricacies of Cucurbitaceae pollen morphology while concurrently highlighting their noteworthy antimicrobial potentials. HIGHLIGHTS: High-resolution imaging reveals complex pollen morphology. Identification of unique antimicrobial structures on Cucurbitaceae pollen (gourd family). Exploring medicinal potential: Antimicrobial properties of cucurbitaceae species.

COMPARING COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS APPROACHES ACROSS LANGUAGES

This paper provides a comparative study on how core computational linguistics techniques function across typologically diverse languages. With a focus on machine translation (MT), it analyzes the complexities that linguistic variability poses for computational approaches. MT development requires language-specific adaptations rather than a one-size-fits-all model. Through a literature review and cross-linguistic case studies, challenges including word order differences, morphological complexity, lexical ambiguity and inadequate resources are explored across analytic, synthetic, tonal and morphologically-rich languages. Results reveal sites of MT difficulty for languages like Arabic, Chinese, Hindi and Swahili. Discussion centers on how techniques like rule-based, statistical and neural MT are impacted by unique linguistic features, requiring adjustments like morphological analyzers and tailored training data. This indicates the importance of inclusive computational linguistics that moves beyond reliance on English data. The study concludes that flexibility and language-specific customization is needed for algorithms to model the structures of the world’s roughly 7,000 languages effectively.

The Task of Post-Editing Machine Translation for the Low-Resource Language

In recent years, machine translation has made significant advancements; however, its effectiveness can vary widely depending on the language pair. Languages with limited resources, such as Kazakh, Uzbek, Kalmyk, Tatar, and others, often encounter challenges in achieving high-quality machine translations. Kazakh is an agglutinative language with complex morphology, making it a low-resource language. This article addresses the task of post-editing machine translation for the Kazakh language. The research begins by discussing the history and evolution of machine translation and how it has developed to meet the unique needs of languages with limited resources. The research resulted in the development of a machine translation post-editing system. The system utilizes modern machine learning methods, starting with neural machine translation using the BRNN model in the initial post-editing stage. Subsequently, the transformer model is applied to further edit the text. Complex structural and grammatical forms are processed, and abbreviations are replaced. Practical experiments were conducted on various texts: news publications, legislative documents, IT sphere, etc. This article serves as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners in the field of machine translation, shedding light on effective post-editing strategies to enhance translation quality, particularly in scenarios involving languages with limited resources such as Kazakh and Uzbek. The obtained results were tested and evaluated using specialized metrics—BLEU, TER, and WER.

Evaluating the Field Emission Properties of N-Type Black Silicon Cold Cathodes Based on a Three-Dimensional Model.

Black silicon (BS), a nanostructured silicon surface containing highly roughened surface morphology, has recently emerged as a promising candidate for field emission (FE) cathodes in novel electron sources due to its huge number of sharp tips with ease of large-scale fabrication and controllable geometrical shapes. However, evaluating the FE performance of BS-based nanostructures with high accuracy is still a challenge due to the increasing complexity in the surface morphology. Here, we demonstrate a 3D modeling methodology to fully characterize highly disordered BS-based field emitters randomly distributed on a roughened nonflat surface. We fabricated BS cathode samples with different morphological features to demonstrate the validity of this method. We utilize parametrized scanning electron microscopy images that provide high-precision morphology details, successfully describing the electric field distribution in field emitters and linking the theoretical analysis with the measured FE property of the complex nanostructures with high precision. The 3D model developed here reveals a relationship between the field emission performance and the density of the cones, successfully reproducing the classical relationship between current density J and electric field E (J-E curve). The proposed modeling approach is expected to offer a powerful tool to accurately describe the field emission properties of large-scale, disordered nano cold cathodes, thus serving as a guide for the design and application of BS as a field electron emission material.