Complete Streets Policies Research Articles

An economic analysis of complete streets policies

This paper tests whether adoption of a Complete Streets policy (a transport policy and design approach that requires streets to be designed and operated to allow equal access to all people and major forms of transportation, rather than just motor vehicles) has amenity value for local residents by analyzing the link between Complete Streets policy adoption and house prices using a difference-in-differences matching procedure (DIDMP). We employ this DIDMP because commonly employed least-squares-regression techniques may fail to fully account for selection effects. We show that commonly employed least-squares-regression techniques generally overestimate the effect of a Complete Streets policy and using DIDMP we find that Complete Streets policy adoption had no statistically significant effect on house prices.

Healthy by Design: Using a Gender Focus to Influence Complete Streets Policy

BackgroundPublic health leaders in Yellowstone County, Montana, formed an alliance to address community-wide issues. One such issue is Complete Streets, with its vision of safe streets for all. This case study focuses on development and adoption of a Complete Streets policy. It examines how a community coalition, Healthy By Design, infused a gender focus into the policymaking process. MethodsAn incremental and nonlinear policymaking process was aided by a focus on gender and health equity. The focus on a large constituency helped to frame advocacy in terms of a broad population's needs, not just special interests. ResultsThe city council unanimously adopted a Complete Streets resolution, informed by a gender lens. Healthy By Design further used gender information to successfully mobilize the community in response to threats of repeal of the policy, and then influenced the adoption of a revised policy. ConclusionsPolicies developed with a focus on equity, including gender equity, may have broader impact on the community. Such policies may pave the way for future policies that seek to transform gender norms toward building a healthier community for all residents.

Prevalence of Complete Streets policies in U.S. municipalities.

Communities can adopt Complete Streets policies to support physical activity through the routine design and operation of streets and communities that are safe for all people, regardless of age, ability, or mode of transport. Our aim was two-fold: (1) to estimate the prevalence of Complete Streets policies in the United States overall and by select municipality characteristics using data from the National Survey of Community-Based Policy and Environmental Supports for Healthy Eating and Active Living (CBS HEAL) and (2) examine the agreement between information about local policies reported in CBS HEAL with those found in the National Complete Streets Coalition's database. Data from a representative sample of incorporated U.S. municipalities with a population of at least 1000 people (n = 2029) were analyzed using survey weights to create national estimates. In 2014, 25.2% of municipalities had a Complete Streets policy reported by a local official. Prevalence of local policies decreased with decreasing population size and was lower among those with a lower median education level and those in the South, with and without adjustment for other municipality characteristics. Agreement between local Complete Streets policies reported in CBS HEAL and the coalition's database was moderate with 72.5% agreement (kappa = 0.21); however, agreement was lower for municipalities with smaller populations, those located in rural areas, and those with a lower median education level. About 16.8% of local officials reported they did not know if their municipality had such a policy. There is room for improvement in the awareness and adoption of Complete Streets policies in the United States, especially among smaller municipalities and those with lower median education levels. Helping communities address issues related to the awareness, adoption, and implementation of Complete Streets policies can be an important step toward creating more walkable communities.

STREETS FOR EVERYONE AT EVERY AGE: EXAMINING COMPLETE STREETS POLICY LANGUAGE FOR OLDER ADULT USERS

STREETS FOR EVERYONE AT EVERY AGE: EXAMINING COMPLETE STREETS POLICY LANGUAGE FOR OLDER ADULT USERS

Bicycling and walking in the Southeast USA: Why is it rare and risky?

Abstract Although the Southeast USA region of the United States has warm weather and relatively flat terrain, bicycling and walking for transportation are less prevalent in the region than in the rest of the United States. Moreover, these modes have higher rates of traffic crashes and fatalities in the Southeast USA than elsewhere. We examine factors that may contribute to this outcome, including urban sprawl, historical development patterns, policies, goals, legislation, infrastructure, and funding for active transportation. We find that the Southeast USA has undergone population growth following a distinct pattern, resulting in denser population in rural areas, and less dense population in urban areas, than the rest of the nation. Over the long term, the Southeast USA underwent a specific pattern of growth between 1940 and 1980 (the heyday of automobile-oriented development): the region transitioned from mostly rural to slightly over half urban, in terms of population. State and local policies and funding also play a role in the current status of active transportation in the Southeast USA. We conclude that while some emerging trends are promising, such as the adoption of Complete Streets policies, the Southeast USA faces unique challenges due to the patterns by which development has occurred there.

Becoming More Complete

The complete streets movement calls for streetscapes designed for safe and convenient walking, biking, and transit usage by all residents including children, the elderly, and the disabled. This study reviews state-level complete streets policies. Our research questions are: (1) In what ways do the states with a complete streets policy differ from the states without one? (2) Have complete streets policies become more comprehensive over time? (3) Does the type of policy—a law passed by a state legislature versus an executive-level policy—change the comprehensiveness of the policy? We find that urbanized states are more likely to have complete streets policies. Diffusion of the policy appears weakly associated with adjacency of adopting states. The type of policy was related to the comprehensiveness of early complete streets policies, but the differences diminish as these policies have gained traction in recent years. Over time, state-level complete streets policies have become more comprehensive in content.

Complete Streets Policies and Public Transit

The concept that streets should be designed for all applicable transportation modes is commonly known as “complete streets.” Many organizations, including cities, counties, regional authorities, and state agencies, have adopted programs encouraging this approach to street design. These programs almost universally consider the needs of bicyclists and pedestrians. However, it is not understood how well transit vehicles and riders are incorporated into these programs. In this study, complete streets programs of different types from different levels of government across the United States were compared on the basis of a consistent, objective set of criteria. These criteria included transit as a roadway user, guidance for running ways and for transit stops, and transit-related performance measures. Each criterion was worth between 1 and 3 points; the total score for each program was between 1 and 12 points. Only 12 programs earned at least 1 point for each criterion, and only 13 programs earned a cumulative score of 8 or greater. Potential relationships between these transit complete streets scores and population, location, and overall complete streets scores were explored, but no meaningful relationships were found; this result indicates that poor representation of transit is a widespread problem not limited to certain groups. This research revealed a dramatic gap in complete streets programs with regard to transit and calls for future attention and guidance of agencies adopting complete streets programs.

Few Michigan Jurisdictions Have Adopted Complete Streets Policies, Though Many See Potential Benefits

This report presents the opinions of Michigan local government leaders regarding “Complete Streets” policies, which encourage local governments to take into account all road users — including pedestrians, bicyclists and transit passengers of all ages and abilities, as well as trucks, buses and automobiles — during the planning, design, and construction of public streets. The findings in this report are based on a statewide survey of local government leaders in the Fall 2014 wave of the Michigan Public Policy Survey (MPPS), including a supplementary survey of county road commissions and departments.

Building Activity Friendly Environments

PURPOSE: Policies that support physical activity are important to the achievement of individual and population heath. A Complete Streets (CS) policy ensures that roads are designed with attention to the needs of all users (bicyclist, pedestrians, motorists, etc). Using CBPR methods, the Partnership for Activity Community Environments (PACE), a multi-disciplinary collaborative (architects, builders, developers, engineers, planners, lenders, health, government) that encourages building activity friendly neighborhoods, hosted multiple townhall meetings to explore the supports and barriers to building activity friendly environments. METHODS: Adhering to a CBPR design, during PACE’s first townhall meeting multiple methods were used to document multi-disciplinary priorities across three levels [investigative team (n = 5), advisory board (n = 11), community (n = 175)]. The development and adoption of a Complete Street policy was identified as a priority issue by participants (n=73). Following this meeting multiple action groups were formed and the CS action group identified and implemented multiple strategies to leverage influence and support for adoption of a CS policy by bringing additional value to existing efforts and by enhancing partner activities over a 3 year period. RESULTS: A comprehensive plan to advocate for CS policy and improve transportation infrastructure was developed and implemented by PACE partners. Multiple strategies (i.e. video production, website, Great Streets summit, pizza with planners, presentations to various groups, were identified and implemented at 3 levels of influence (individual, organizational, community). The goal of establishing a Complete Streets transportation policy was achieved, a CS policy was signed by the mayor in 2013 and is now included in the city’s transportation plan. CONCLUSION: PACE’s collaborative efforts to encourage the adoption and maintenance of healthy behaviors through CBPR practices were successful at facilitating the adoption of a CS policy in a large, metropolitan government. This process can serve as a model for other communities.

Development of Low-Cost Methodology for Evaluating Pedestrian Safety in Support of Complete Streets Policy Implementation

This study provides a framework for a comprehensive, low-cost pedestrian safety analysis incorporating multiple data sources and analysis techniques. Critically, the framework is flexible enough to provide meaningful results and inform recommended safety interventions even if there are gaps in data availability or completeness. The methodology includes an evaluation of available crash records, an audit of current pedestrian facilities, collection of pedestrian count data, and an assessment of relevant contextual factors. Together, these elements provide a holistic view of pedestrian safety and comfort, informing needed interventions. This methodology was used to evaluate three pedestrian crash clusters in the New Orleans, Louisiana, area and revealed serious deficiencies in the pedestrian environment. The methodology uncovered critical systemic data gaps that needed to be addressed to draw clearer relationships between infrastructure and crash patterns. The methodology was also found to be an effective tool for comparing and prioritizing proposed investments and a means to demonstrate clearly to policy makers the need for continued attention to the improvement of pedestrian safety in the context of Complete Streets policy implementation.

The severity of pedestrian crashes: an analysis using Google Street View imagery

Data derived from visual inspection of Google Street View imagery associated with a variety of pedestrian and road infrastructure features are analyzed with a database of pedestrian casualties. These features include the presence of sidewalks, buffers between the road and the sidewalk, street lighting, number of travel lanes and the presence of medians, traffic controls at intersections, and posted speed limits. The analysis focuses on how these features affect the severity of a pedestrian casualty once it has occurred. Other controls used in the analysis include the age of the victim, ambient lighting conditions, and whether the vehicle driver was intoxicated. Results suggest that severity of pedestrian casualties is associated with the lack of sidewalks and buffers, high-speed roads, roads with six or more lanes and a median, and lack of traffic lighting when it is dark. Speed is a critical factor in determining the severity of crash outcomes, and most road characteristics affect crash outcomes to the extent that they moderate or facilitate high speeds. Casualties are more severe when it is dark than when it is daylight. Older pedestrians tend to have more severe casualties. A key contribution of this work is the use of Google Street View imagery; however, a limitation is that the analysis cannot examine the probability of a pedestrian casualty. Implications for road safety are consistent with national efforts to make streets safer via Complete Streets policies.

Diffusion of Complete Streets Policies Across US Communities

Complete Streets policies guide planning in communities by making the transportation system accommodating to all users including vehicle drivers, pedestrians, and bicyclists, as well as those using public transportation. While the number of Complete Streets policies has increased over the past decade, no research has explored the factors attributing to the widespread diffusion of these policies. The purpose of this study was to apply concepts of the Diffusion of Innovation Theory to data related to Complete Streets policies in order to identify potential patterns and correlates. The main outcome of this study was policy adoption. Using the Diffusion of Innovation Theory and results from previous literature, we identified several factors that had the potential to affect the rate of Complete Streets policy diffusion: rural/urban status, state obesity rate, state funding for transportation, state obesity prevention funding, percentage of people who walk or bike to work in the state, presence of a state Complete Streets policy, and the number of bordering communities with Complete Streets policy. We used event history analysis as the main analysis method. Data from 49 community-level policies were analyzed, with a "community" defined as a city, a county, or a regional/Metropolitan Planning Organization. Three variables were significant predictors of Complete Streets policy adoption: state obesity rate (odds ratio [OR] = 1.465; confidence interval [CI] = 1.10-1.96) percentage of people who bike or walk to work in the state (OR = 1.726; CI = 1.069-2.79), and presence of a border community with a Complete Streets policy (OR = 3.859; CI = 1.084-13.742). Communities with Complete Streets policies varied in geographic and sociodemographic factors. Information about communities that are more likely to adopt a policy can be a tool for advocates and policy makers interested in this topic. Because adoption does not imply implementation, further research is needed to study outcomes of Complete Streets policies.

Complete Enough for Complete Streets?

An increasing number of jurisdictions across the United States are exploring level of service (LOS) for multiple travel modes, in part as a result of the release of the Highway Capacity Manual 2010 (HCM 2010), as well as an increased focus on complete streets policies. One of the most important questions being asked by these jurisdictions is whether new multimodal LOS methods are sensitive enough to inform transportation investments, mitigate impacts, and prioritize future projects. For this paper, transportation professionals (public, private, and academic) were surveyed about the inputs believed to have the greatest effect on pedestrian, bicycle, transit, and auto LOS or the inputs thought to have the greatest likelihood of being changed (e.g., to mitigate an impact or to improve existing conditions). Sensitivity testing was then performed at locations in four cities to measure how the HCM 2010 multimodal LOS scores responded as these inputs were incrementally increased or decreased. Although many inputs performed as expected, the testing also found model responses that were of a questionable direction or magnitude. The results of this study are informative for agencies that are considering adopting the HCM 2010 multimodal LOS for mitigation, resource allocation, and strategic decision making. The results also provide a starting point for additional research needed to enhance multimodal LOS methods.

Caltrans Embraces Complete Streets on the Central Coast

Over the last few years, there has been quite a buzz around the concept of Complete Streets. Coined by Barbara McCann almost ten years ago to replace the wonky term, Routine Accommodation, the concept has galvanized communities to think about planning roadways for all travelers including bicyclists of all comfort levels, people on foot, and those using public transit. To date, 26 states and 352 regional and local jurisdictions around the United States have adopted some form of Complete Streets policy, with strong efforts being made for adoption at the national level.

Community Design and Policies for Free-Range Children: Creating Environments That Support Routine Physical Activity

Growing concern over childhood obesity has prompted a focus on underlying epidemics of physical inactivity and poor nutrition. Regarding the former, there is increasing understanding that behavior change promotion alone has not increased population physical activity levels and that an ecological approach is necessary. Therefore, the public health profession has moved beyond traditional behavior change campaigns toward a growing focus on altering policies and the built environment to create settings that support increases in routine, not just exercise or leisure time, physical activity among children. A survey of the literature suggests four broad factors that define settings where routine physical activity, especially active transportation, is more likely to occur: • a compact variety of land uses, with a mix of destinations in close proximity; • a comprehensive network of bicycle, pedestrian, and transit facilities; • inviting and functional site designs for pedestrians, cyclists, and transit users; • safety and access for users of all ages, incomes, abilities and disabilities. Although these principles are increasingly accepted as beneficial, not just to health but to a community's economic, environmental, and social well-being, many contemporary ordinances and development practices undermine these outcomes. Therefore, five specific policy and intervention approaches are recommended to guide communities to these outcomes: 1. zoning and development policies to protect open space, contain sprawl, and focus investment toward thriving, mixed downtowns and village centers; 2. Complete Streets policies, which require roadways that are safe and functional for pedestrians, bicyclists, and transit users, as well as motor vehicles; 3. a transportation- (not just recreation-) oriented trail network; 4. creation of bicycle- and transit-friendly infrastructure and incentive policies; 5. development of policy-based Safe Routes to School interventions. This proposed intervention framework requires evaluation both of effectiveness in increasing childhood physical activity and of the most promising means of getting policies implemented.

Where the Shoe Leather Meets the Road: Learning From Experience in Crafting a Complete Streets Ordinance

Complete streets. The term neatly summarizes the idea that streets can be safe places for people of all ages and abilities, whether on foot, on bikes, in wheelchairs, or in buses, cars, or streetcars. The idea has taken hold in hundreds of U.S. communities, providing lessons for those considering adopting a complete streets policy. Crafting an ordinance or resolution has the potential to crystalize a community's vision for their streets and provide a guide to implementation.

A Comprehensive Multi-Level Approach for Passing Safe Routes to School and Complete Streets Policies in Hawaii

Policy changes were needed to reshape the built environment for active transportation. Using the social ecological model as a framework, the Healthy Hawaii Initiative worked with a contractor to develop a series of meetings, planning sessions, and workshops. Activities spanned 22 months between 2007 and 2009, and involved multiple stakeholders, including educational outreach for legislators and collaborative planning sessions with advocates. Ultimately, with the help of the contractor to initiate the process, Complete Streets and Safe Routes to School (SRTS) legislation were introduced January 2009. Advocacy groups monitored bill progress, testified at hearings, and assisted in rewording the bills. The SRTS statute required the Department of Transportation (DOT) to administer the federal SRTS funds and the complete streets law tasked the state and county DOTs to adopt complete streets policies and review existing highway design standards and guidelines. Both bills were signed into law June 2009. Focusing efforts at multiple levels of the social ecological model involving champions and key stakeholders led to the successful passage of legislation supporting active transportation. Tracking policy implementation and evaluation over time will help determine actual impact on active transportation behaviors across Hawaii.

Partnership Moves Community Toward Complete Streets

The Partnership for Active Communities brought together multidisciplinary organizations to create a 5-year project to support increased walking and bicycling in the Sacramento CA area. Using a community action model, the partnership focused on programs and promotions to expand walk- and bike-to-school programs. The partnership focused on policy and physical projects in conducting systematic reviews of development projects to influence land use. A comprehensive communications plan united diverse partnership interests to advocate for Complete Streets policy change and improve transportation infrastructure. Walk- and bike-to-school programs grew, and community-design workshops helped leverage more than $12 million in additional support, including Safe Routes to School grants. The partnership delivered more than 150 project reviews to city planners, architects, and developers with recommendations for improved pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure, and many positive changes resulted. Complete Streets is now included as a policy in the region's transportation plan, in the mobility element of the city's updated general plan and the county's draft circulation plan, and in the regional transit master plan. The partnership's communications plan linked partners with diverse interests to produce a powerful advocacy network to influence adoption of Complete Streets policies. Project development reviews were most successful in communities that allowed comments at a conceptual stage in the process. The Partnership for Active Communities produced increased public and agency awareness of pedestrian and bicycle safety issues and influenced considerable changes to policies and the physical environment in the Sacramento area.