Complement Type Research Articles

Fuzzy matrices with fuzzy rows and columns

Fuzzy matrices (FMs) play important role to model several uncertain systems. In FMs, it is assumed that the rows and columns are certain. But, in many real life situations it is seen that they are also uncertain. So to model these types of uncertain problems, new type of FMs are introduced called fuzzy matrices with fuzzy rows and columns (FMFRCs). For these matrices, null, identity, equality, etc. are defined along with four binary operators ∨,∧, and ⊕. Two types of complements and density of FMFRC are defined and investigated several important properties. An application of FMFRC in image representation is also given.

Towards coherent infinitival patterns in the history of German

According to Haider (2010), we have to distinguish three types of infinitival complements in Present-Day German: (i) CP complements, (ii) VP complements and (iii) verbal clusters. While CP complements give rise to biclausal structures, VP complements and verbal clusters indicate a monoclausal structure. Non-finite verbs in verbal clusters build a syntactic unit with the governing verb. It is only the last infinitival pattern that we address as a so-called coherent infinitival pattern, a notion introduced in the influential work of Bech (1955/57). Verbal clusters are bound to languages with an OV grammar, hence the well-known differences regarding infinitival syntax in German and English (Haider 2003, Bobaljik 2004). On the widespread assumption that German has been an OV language throughout its history (Axel 2007), we expect all three types of infinitival complements to be present from the earliest attestions of German.This expectation, however, is not borne out. In the present article, I show that we find infinitival complements projecting either CPs or VPs in older stages of German, while verbal clusters turn out to be a quite recent phenomenon in the history of German, as already suggested in work by Askedal (1998), Demske (2008) and Maché & Abraham (2011). In line with current beliefs that German is underspecified regarding the direction of government in earlier stages of its historical development, I argue that the rise of verbal clusters is motivated by the increasing stabilization of an OV grammar since the 16th century.

Aspects of the acquisition of object control and ECM-Type verbs in European Portuguese

ABSTRACTWe investigate the acquisition of sentential complementation under causative, perception, and object control verbs in European Portuguese, a language rich in complement types, including the typologically marked inflected infinitives. We tested 58 children between 3 and 5 years of age and 24 adults on a sentence completion task. The results support two main hypotheses concerning children’s initial biases in representing complement structure. The first pertains to argument structure—a verb selects only one internal (propositional) argument (Single Argument Selection Hypothesis), the other to syntactic structure—propositional complements are complete functional complements (Complete Functional Complement Hypothesis). These initial biases lead children to avoid raising-to-object and object control structures, in favor of finite complements and inflected infinitive complements, the latter appearing in both target and nontarget contexts.

An Empirical Study of Korean Adjectival Predicates that License Double Nominative Constructions

Despite the numerous studies proposed to explain double nominative constructions (DNCs) in Korean, empirical approaches to the predicate types that license their essential complements for conversion into nominatives have attracted little attention from scholars. However, given that, from syntactic and semantic viewpoints, the DNCs result from diverse and complex linguistic realities, a rigorous examination of the predicate types is required before attempting to elaborate theoretical assumptions further. Based on a large database of 6,600 Korean adjectives, this study distinguishes two types of DNCs: Predicate-Dependent DNCs (PD-DNCs), where the two nominatives are essential arguments of the adjectival predicates; and Discourse-Dependent DNCs (DD-DNCs), where one of the two nominatives is not related to the argument structures, but either is generated by the split of one argument or is newly introduced at the discourse level. About 30% of the 6,600 adjectives license PD-DNCs. On this basis, the current study provides two findings on PD-DNCs. First, adjectives licensing PD-DNCs are classified into five syntactic and semantic sub-types, the predominant complement type that is convertible into a nominative being that in -EY. Second, the adjectives licensing their complements for conversion into nominatives mostly show certain peculiar syntactic properties: most of them permit two syntactic constructions in a subject-complement crossing (SCC) relation like 'N1-NOM N2-POS ADJ-DEC=N2-NOM N1-POS ADJ-DEC'. With regard to DD-DNCs, in this study the DNCs are divided into four sub-types, which exhibit various semantic and syntactic properties that are distinct from those of PD-DNCs.

Exploring links between language and cognition in autism spectrum disorders: Complement sentences, false belief, and executive functioning

A growing body of work indicates a close relation between complement clause sentences and Theory of Mind (ToM) in children with autism (e.g., Tager-Flusberg, & Joseph (2005). In Astington, & Baird (Eds.), Why language matters for theory of mind (pp. 298–318). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press, Lind, & Bowler (2009). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(6), 929). However, this link is based primarily on success at a specific complement clause task and a verbal false-belief (FB) task. One cannot exclude that the link found between these tasks may be a by-product of their both presupposing similar levels of language skills. It is also an open question if the role of complementation in ToM success is a privileged one as compared to that of other abilities which have been claimed to be an important factor for ToM understanding in autism, namely executive functioning (EF) (Pellicano (2007). Developmental Psychology 43, 974). Indeed the role played by complementation may be conceived of as an indirect one, mediated by some more general cognitive function related to EF. This study is the first to examine the relation between theory of mind assessed both verbally and non-verbally and various types of complement clause sentences as well as executive functions in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Our participants included 17 children and adolescents with ASD (aged 6 to 16) and a younger TD control group matched on non-verbal IQ (aged 4 to 9 years). Three tasks assessing complements of verbs of cognition, verbs of communication and verbs of perception were conducted. ToM tasks involved a verbal ToM task (Sally-Anne, Baron-Cohen et al. (1985). Cognition, 21(1), 37) as well as a non-verbal one (Colle et al. (2007). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(4), 716). Indexes of executive functions were collected via a computerized version of the Dimensional Change Card-Sorting task (Frye et al., 1995). Standardized measures of vocabulary, morphosyntax and non-verbal IQ were also administered. Results show similar performance by children with ASD and TD controls for the understanding of complement sentences, for non-verbal ToM and for executive functions. However, children with ASD were significantly impaired for false belief when this was measured verbally. For both ASD and TD, correlations controlling for IQ were found between the verbal FB task and complement sentences of verbs of communication and cognition, but not with verbs of perception. EF indexes did not significantly correlate with either of the ToM tasks, nor did any of the general language scores. These findings provide support for the view that knowledge of certain specific types of complement clause may serve as a privileged means of ‘hacking out’ solutions to verbal false belief tasks for individuals on the autistic spectrum. More specifically, complements with a truth-value that is independent of that of the matrix clause (i.e. those occurring with verbs of cognition and of communication, but not of perception) may describe a false event while the whole sentence remains true, making these linguistic structures particularly well suited for representing the minds of others (de Villiers, 2007).Learning outcomes: Readers will be able to (1) describe and evaluate the hypothesis that complement sentences play a privileged role in false belief task success in autism; (2) describe performance on complement sentences, executive functioning and false belief tasks by children with autism as compared to IQ-matched peers; (3) explain which types of complements specifically relate to false belief task performance and why; and (4) understand that differences in performance by children with autism at different types of false-belief tasks may be related to the nature of the task conducted and the underlying mechanisms involved.

"To Cultivate Our Children to Be of East and West": Contesting Ethnic Heritage Language in Suburban Chinese Schools

“THE GREAT CHALLENGE AND INSPIRATION [for Chinese parents in the United States] is to cultivate our children to be you zhong you xi [of East and West] rather than bu zhong bu xi [without East or West],” members of the Association of Chinese Schools wrote in the group’s 1985 annual publication. Decades earlier, during the 1960s, Chinese suburbanites around the country had begun to establish weekend heritage language schools in an effort to help young Chinese Americans—many of them American-born— retain a sense of their Chinese heritage while living in primarily European American areas. The schools offered a structured environment to learn about Chinese culture, be among co-ethnic peers, hone Chinese-language skills, and negotiate an identity that would encompass both the students’ Chinese and American backgrounds. Heritage language education has been one strategy employed by many immigrant groups for preserving their ethnic heritage in the United States. According to anthropologist Joe C. Fong, this type of education complements (rather than undermines) a student’s formal primary and secondary schooling. Although Chinese Americans from a variety of class, geographic, and linguistic backgrounds have established heritage language schools, this study focuses on middle-class groups living in affluent and predominantly white suburban areas with dispersed Chinese populations in the post-1960 era. The schools became sites where intra-ethnic differences surfaced in powerful ways for suburban Chinese groups. Rather than promoting a singular or universal understanding of Chinese ethnic heritage and language, the conflicts within these schools reveal the complexities of these suburban populations. This study explores these intra-ethnic dynamics at schools nationally, but with an emphasis on the suburbs around Washington, DC, and Wilmington, Delaware, to demonstrate how suburban middle-class Chinese Americans continued to maintain ethnic identities and community networks despite living in primarily European American suburbs. Both areas have relatively

Phasal and proximative complementation: Lithuanian baigti

The article deals with Lithuanian constructions based on the verb baigti ‘finish’. They have traditionally been dealt with in the context of phasal complementation. In this article it is argued that the verb baigti actually underlies two different types of constructions: in addition to phasal constructions with imperfective infinitives there are also proximative constructions with perfective infinitives. The proximative construction refers to an imminent event viewed as the outcome of a (basically unexpressed) process that is in its final phase at the moment of speaking (or some reference time not coinciding with the moment of speaking). The Lithuanian proximative construction with baigti, which has no counterpart in Latvian, has probably evolved from the phasal construction; it has a number of properties that hark back to its phasal origin and are not necessarily characteristic of proximatives in general. The article gives a characterization of the proximative construction with baigti, analyses its interaction with different aspectual classes, and discusses its relation to another gram-type, the so-called avertive. It is also pointed out that, in view of the existence of a distinct proximative complementation type, combinations of baigti with perfective infinitives should no longer be adduced as evidence against the existence of aspectual oppositions in the Lithuanian verb. 
 

On N-less Nominals

There are nominals with no N although there is no antecedent for the missing N. In this paper I propose that the absence of N is not surprising, since D is the head of a nominal, and NP is just one type of complements that D subcategorizes for: besides NP, D can take as its complement PP and AP, and it may take no complement at all. Furthermore, this paper provides a principled account for why only the determiner the can take an AP complement. Both AP and NP denote a set or an 〈e,t〉 type, but the former differs from the latter in that it does not provide information about the members of the set. Determiners usually quantify over the member(s) of a set, and so they cannot take an AP-complement. However, I claim that the, unlike the other determiners, can be a determiner for a set or a restriction, and hence it can take AP as its complement. This claim is shown to shed light on the syntactic and semantic peculiarities of such expressions as the intelligent.

Truncation in the Spanish left-periphery: fragment answers and recomplementation

In this paper, we discuss the contrast between two classes of predicates in Spanish: those that can embed fragment answers and those that cannot. We show that these predicate classes differ not only in the general the availability of fragment answers but also in the availability of the complementizer <em>que </em>in certain constructions as well as the availability of the phenomenon known as <em>recomplementation</em>,<em> </em>as discussed by Villa-García (2012) and Demonte & Fernández-Soriano (2009). We propose that the syntactic differences between the two classes of predicates arise because these predicates select different types of clausal complements.

Nonsyntenic genes drive highly dynamic complementation of gene expression in maize hybrids.

Maize (Zea mays) displays an exceptional level of structural genomic diversity, which is likely unique among higher eukaryotes. In this study, we surveyed how the genetic divergence of two maize inbred lines affects the transcriptomic landscape in four different primary root tissues of their F1-hybrid progeny. An extreme instance of complementation was frequently observed: genes that were expressed in only one parent but in both reciprocal hybrids. This single-parent expression (SPE) pattern was detected for 2341 genes with up to 1287 SPE patterns per tissue. As a consequence, the number of active genes in hybrids exceeded that of their parents in each tissue by >400. SPE patterns are highly dynamic, as illustrated by their excessive degree of tissue specificity (80%). The biological significance of this type of complementation is underpinned by the observation that a disproportionally high number of SPE genes (75 to 82%) is nonsyntenic, as opposed to all expressed genes (36%). These genes likely evolved after the last whole-genome duplication and are therefore younger than the syntenic genes. In summary, SPE genes shape the remarkable gene expression plasticity between root tissues and complementation in maize hybrids, resulting in a tissue-specific increase of active genes in F1-hybrids compared with their inbred parents.

Contrasting the syntax and semantics of negative causation

The main objective of this study is to compare the structure of the factitive construction expressing negative causation with dejar/deixar (“to let”) in Ibero-Romance languages. It is generally accepted that Portuguese and Spanish exhibit a high degree of syntactic equivalence. However, the nature of the infinitive in the two languages is quite different, displaying more verbal characteristics in Portuguese than in Spanish. By means of a detailed empirical study, this article examines whether this structural difference has an effect on the syntax of the causatives with deixar and dejar. Indeed, statistically the selection of the different complement types (finite clause vs. infinitive, with an anteposed or postposed causee) differs substantially in the two languages. A multifactorial analysis shows to what extent the degree of dynamicity of the main constituents, namely the causer, the causee and the caused event, determine the syntactic variation in the two languages and how this variation can be linked to the different grammatical status of the infinitive.

Different by-phrases with adjectival and verbal passives: Evidence from Spanish corpus data

We present a Spanish corpus data study that shows that event-related by-phrases in the two types of passives are qualitatively different with respect to the types of complements they take: with verbal passives we find more strongly referential nominals (e.g. proper names, pronouns, demonstratives, regular definites), whereas with adjectival passives, we mainly find weakly or non-referential nominals (e.g. indefinites, bare nominals, weak and generic definites). These differences comply with an account, according to which the event in adjectival passives remains in the kind domain, restricting event modification to kind modification. Furthermore, the data show that there are no qualitative differences in the complements we find in state-related by-phrases of either passive, which have the same properties as those in event-related ones with verbal passives. We take this fact to support the claim that there are two different kinds of by-phrases with adjectival passives: event-related ones which modify an event kind (the VP/PrtP before adjectivisation), and state-related ones which modify a state token (the AP).

Quantitative analysis of night skyglow amplification under cloudy conditions

The radiance produced by artificial light is a major source of nighttime over-illumination. It can, however, be treated experimentally using ground-based and satellite data. These two types of data complement each other and together have a high information content. For instance, the satellite data enable upward light emissions to be normalized, and this in turn allows skyglow levels at the ground to be modelled under cloudy or overcast conditions. Excessive night lighting imposes an unacceptable burden on nature, humans and professional astronomy. For this reason, there is a pressing need to determine the total amount of downwelling diffuse radiation. Undoubtedly, cloudy periods can cause a significant increase in skyglow as a result of amplification owing to diffuse reflection from clouds. While it is recognized that the amplification factor (AF) varies with cloud cover, the effects of different types of clouds, of atmospheric turbidity and of the geometrical relationships between the positions of an individual observer, the cloud layer, and the light source are in general poorly known. In this paper the AF is quantitatively analysed considering different aerosol optical depths (AODs), urban layout sizes and cloud types with specific albedos and altitudes. The computational results show that the AF peaks near the edges of a city rather than at its centre. In addition, the AF appears to be a decreasing function of AOD, which is particularly important when modelling the skyglow in regions with apparent temporal or seasonal variability of atmospheric turbidity. The findings in this paper will be useful to those designing engineering applications or modelling light pollution, as well as to astronomers and environmental scientists who aim to predict the amplification of skyglow caused by clouds. In addition, the semi-analytical formulae can be used to estimate the AF levels, especially in densely populated metropolitan regions for which detailed computations may be CPU-intensive. These new results are of theoretical and experimental significance as they will motivate experimentalists to collect data from various regions to build an overall picture of the AF, and will encourage modellers to test the consistency with theoretical predictions.

Two-arguments-crossing phenomena in adjectival constructions

Although certain crossing relations between two arguments in verbal constructions have been discussed in previous works, few studies have been conducted on adjectival constructions. Based on a large-scale database of adjectives, this study examines the syntactic constructions of adjectival predicates and classifies diverse types of two-arguments-crossing (TAC) relations in the adjectival constructions. This study has a twofold goal. First, it provides a reliable result obtained from the exhaustive examination of 6600 adjectival predicates, instead of reporting typical complement types or crossing relations between arguments based on a limited number of examples. About 17% of Korean adjectives have been revealed licensing TAC relations. Second, the TAC relations, distinguished from other syntactic alternations, are empirically discerned and classified into four sub-types: IS-SYM, IS-CRT, DS-LOC and DS-PSY types. The first three types of the TAC relations are also observed in verbal constructions, whereas the last type seems exclusive to adjectival constructions. On the ground of the current study on adjectives, a full-scale study on verbal constructions licensing crossing relations between two arguments would be conducted in future works and therefore, a theoretical assumption may be elaborated on the basis of a solid linguistic reality.

Initial Mycophenolate Dosing in De Novo Kidney Transplant Recipients Taking Tacrolimus - 1.5 or 2 Grams Daily?

Aim: Currently mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) and tacrolimus (tac) are the most commonly used combination of maintenance immunosuppressants, yet the optimal dose of MMF is not known. This study aimed to determine if the initial MMF dose influences the risk of biopsy proven acute rejection episodes (BPAR), leukopaenia or poorer renal function in the first 12 months after transplant in kidney transplant recipients (KTR). Methods: Our unit changed the routine initial MMF dose from 1.5gm to 2gm daily in late 2009 for all de novo KTR commenced on tacrolimus. Consecutive KTRs for 16 months either side of this change were included to form 2 cohorts. Cox regression was used to assess the association of MMF dose with BPARs and leukopaenia. Serum creatinine at 12 months was compared. All KTR received maintenance prednisolone and infection prophylaxis with Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole and Valganciclovir/Valaciclovir. Results: There were no significant baseline differences between groups in terms of age, gender, peak or current Complement Dependent Cytotoxicity Panel Reactive Assay, HLA mismatch, transplant number or type nor CMV serology. After adjusting for recipient age, gender, cmvd+/r-, cmv viraemia and rejection, MMF 2gm/day was associated with a doubling of the risk of leukopaenia (HR 1.99, 95%CI 1.1-3.6, p=0.02) relative to 1.5gm/day. A 45% reduction in the risk of BPARs (HR 0.55, 95%CI 0.31-0.99, p=0.047) was also observed in the group on MMF 2g/day after adjustment for recipient age, gender, leukopaenia, transplant number and peak CDC PRA. CMV viraemia and transplant number were also significantly associated with leukopaenia and BPAR respectively in the above models. Despite these associations there were no significant differences in mean serum creatinine levels at 12 months, infections episodes or infection related hospitalisations between the two groups. Conclusion: The MMF dose chosen for KTR on tacrolimus maintenance influences the rate of BPARs and leukopaenia in the initial 12 months. A randomised controlled trial is warranted to establish the degree of this effect as well as the long-term impact of MMF dose on graft function and patient safety.

Complex sentences

13.1. Postverbal embedded clauses This chapter describes various types of complex sentences attested in Beng. Two types of subordinate clauses, complement and goal clauses, can be properly embedded inside another clause in a postverbal position inside the main clause, while temporal and conditional clauses occupy a position before the main clause. 13.1.1. Complement clauses Complement clauses are marked by comlementizers kē, kēsa, sa and sâ, which appear to be mutually interchangeable. Oft...

Antagonism of Adenosine A1 or A2A Receptors Amplifies the Effects of MDMA on Glial Activation in the Mouse Brain: Relevance to Caffeine–MDMA Interactions

Background: Previous studies by our group have demonstrated that caffeine, an antagonist of adenosine A1 and A2A receptors, amplifies the glial activation induced by 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy”) in mice. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying this effect, the present study evaluated whether selective antagonists for the A1 or the A2A adenosine receptor had any influence on MDMA-induced glial activation. Methods: MDMA (4×20 mg/kg) was administered to mice, alone or in combination with either the A1 antagonist 1,3-dipropyl-8-cyclopentylxanthine (DPCPX, 0.5 mg/kg) or the A2A antagonist 5-amino-7-(2-phenylethyl)-2-(2-furyl)-pyrazolo(4,3-e)-1,2,4-triazolo(1,5-c) pyrimidine (SCH 58261, 0.5 mg/kg). Immunoreactivity for complement type 3 receptor (CD11b) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) was then studied in the striatum and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) to evaluate microglial and astroglial activation. Results: DPCPX amplified the elevation of both CD11b and GFAP immunoreacti...

On quotative recomplementation: Between pragmatics and morphosyntax

In Catalan and Spanish quotative recomplementation (QRC) constructions, the second complementizer (que2) is used to set boundaries between the reproduced discourse and the clausal elements that were implicit in the original discourse, which must be reintroduced in the new communicative situation, since they are not shared by the interlocutor (e.g., Están sentados en la mesa→Ha dicho que1los invitados #(que2) están sentados en la mesa). QRC is evidence of the existence of two types of complements of quotative verbs: quotative complements (with a de dicto interpretation) and reportative complements (with a de re interpretation; e.g., Están sentados en la mesa→Ha dicho que1los invitados (#que2) ya están colocados). Quotative complements have the same propositional structure as the original sentence and can include some elements such as speech-act adverbs—which are oriented to the original speaker—, as for topics, or HTLDs. On the contrary, reportative complements may be a summary of the original discourse and they lack such elements oriented to the original speaker or the previous discourse. Besides, reportative complements allow long-distance movement from the embedded CP to the matrix CP. We conclude that quotative CP is a phase and reportative CP is not.

A feature-inheritance approach to root phenomena and parametric variation

This work concerns itself with Root Transformations (RT), specifically discussing the RT/non-RT nature of topic fronting in English, Japanese, and Spanish. We claim that this fronting is in principle compatible with all types of embedded clauses regardless of whether the selecting predicate is factive/non-factive, or whether the selected proposition is asserted/non-asserted. Languages vary on how freely they allow topic preposing in various types of complements. Adapting an intervention account of RTs in which an event operator moving to Spec,CP intervenes with other types of operations, we claim that two A′-movements compete for the same syntactic position in certain types of clauses. We account for the variation in the distribution of RTs and non-RTs across languages by the options made possible by inheritance of discourse features. In Japanese and Spanish, the topic feature may be inherited by T from C, so that some instances of topic fronting are to Spec,TP. This movement does not compete with the operator that has moved to Spec,CP, so no competition arises. In contrast, the topic feature stays in C in English, so that topic fronting and the operator movement to CP vie for the same position. This then triggers a competition effect in many constructions such as factives where operator movement has occurred.

Two-Dimensional Effort in Patent-Race Games and Rent-Seeking Contests: The Case of Telephony

Using the political-economic history of the development of telephony during the 1870s as a backdrop, this paper studies a two-player Tullock contest that includes both research effort (R&D) and legal effort (i.e., rent-seeking effort). The two types of efforts complement each other and positively influence the payoff of the contest. We assume that legal effort affects the prize value, increasing the winner’s prospective rents, and research effort impacts the probability of winning the contest. The results of the model break new ground in showing that research effort is a function of legal effort, wherein research effort increases with rent-seeking effort. The model also shows the existence of a strategic equivalence between rent seeking and patent races.