Competitor Words Research Articles

The role of coarticulatory tonal information in Cantonese spoken word recognition: an eye-tracking study

Abstract Previous eye-tracking studies suggest listeners closely track coarticulatory segmental information to facilitate spoken word recognition. In tonal languages such as Cantonese, the F0 value of high-level and rising tones is higher when preceding a low tone than preceding a high tone. Given the tonal coarticulation effect in Cantonese, this study used a printed-word version of the visual-world eye-tracking paradigm to investigate Macau Cantonese listeners’ real-time processing of coarticulatory information through two types of word pairings, in which target words and competitor words are either matched or mismatched in coarticulatory pattern (i.e., preceding a low or high tone). The results of the growth curve analysis on the difference between target and competitor fixations show that a fixation advantage of target words increases more quickly over time in the mismatch condition than in the match condition. The overall findings suggest that native listeners closely attend to the coarticulatory tonal information to facilitate lexical activation during moment-by-moment processing. Since the mechanisms of the coarticulatory effect may differ between segments and lexical tones, this research calls for further eye-tracking studies that manipulate coarticulation cues in segmental and suprasegmental domains.

Adaptive lexical processing of semantic competitors extends to alternative names: Evidence from blocked-cyclic picture naming.

Naming a picture (e.g., "duck") in the context of semantically related pictures (e.g., "eagle," "stork," "parrot") takes longer than naming it in the context of unrelated pictures (e.g., "knave," "toast," "atlas"). Adaptive models of word production attribute this semantic interference effect in blocked-cyclic naming (BCN) to an adaptive mechanism that makes competitor words, (e.g., the semantically related word "eagle" for the target word "duck") which are activated but not selected for production, less accessible for future retrieval. Results from a recent picture-word-interference study, however, suggested that alternative names (e.g., "bird" for "duck") might be exempt from this mechanism, challenging adaptive lexical processing as a general mechanism. We tested whether converging evidence is obtained in BCN. In Experiment 1, we embedded pictures responded to with alternative (category) names (e.g., "bird") into contexts composed of pictures responded to with specific (exemplar) names (e.g., "duck," "eagle," "stork," and "parrot"). If alternative names are exempt from adaptive lexical processing, interference in the homogeneous context should be found for specific name items but not for alternative name items. In contrast to this prediction, there was similar-sized interference for both types of items. In Experiment 2, we replaced the alternative name items with unrelated items. For these items, interference was largely diminished, ruling out that the effect found in Experiment 1 is a general set effect. Overall, our data suggest that alternative names are not special with respect to adaptive lexical processing.

Limits of short-term perceptual training for enhancing Seoul-Korean listeners’ use of English lexical stress in spoken word recognition

This study investigates whether short-term perceptual training can enhance Seoul-Korean listeners’ use of English lexical stress in spoken word recognition. Unlike English, Seoul Korean does not have lexical stress (or lexical pitch accents/tones). Seoul-Korean speakers at a high-intermediate English proficiency completed a visual-world eye-tracking experiment adapted from Connell et al. (2018) (pre-/post-test). The experiment tested whether pitch in the target stimulus (accented versus unaccented first syllable) and vowel quality in the lexical competitor (reduced versus full first vowel) modulated fixations to the target word (e.g., PARrot; ARson) over the competitor word (e.g., paRADE or PARish; arCHIVE or ARcade). In the training (eight 30-min sessions over eight days), participants heard English lexical-stress minimal pairs uttered by four talkers (high variability) or one talker (low variability), categorized them as noun (first-syllable stress) or verb (second-syllable stress), and received accuracy feedback. The results showed that neither training increased target-over-competitor fixation proportions. Crucially, the same training had been found to improve Seoul- Korean listeners’ recall of English words differing in lexical stress (Tremblay et al., 2022) and their weighting of acoustic cues to English lexical stress (Tremblay et al., 2023). These results suggest that short-term perceptual training has a limited effect on target-over-competitor word activation.

Adaptive processing in word production: Evidence from picture-word interference studies.

Adaptive models of word production hold that lexical processing is shaped by recent production episodes. In particular, the models proposed by Howard et al. (2006) and Oppenheim et al. (2010) assume that the connection strength between semantic and lexical representations is updated continuously, on each use of a word. These changes make semantically related competitor words to a selected target word (e.g., "cherry" or "grape" for the target word "apple") less accessible for future retrieval. We put this assumption to a novel test in two picture-word interference experiments. The experiments looked at semantic interference (longer picture naming latencies in the presence of a semantically related distractor word compared to an unrelated distractor word; the effect is assumed to reflect the activation of competitor words to a target word) and its development across repeated naming. Across two times of measurement, semantically related distractor words (and their unrelated controls) were either identical (fixed target-distractor mapping, e.g., either distractor "cherry" or distractor "grape" for the target word "apple" at both times of measurement) or different (variable target-distractor mapping, e.g., distractor "cherry" at first time of measurement and distractor "grape" at second time of measurement or vice versa). Semantic interference was reduced at the second time of measurement, and this reduction was found with both fixed and variable target-distractor mapping. This generalization to new target-distractor combinations provides strong novel support for the notion of production-dependent changes in lexical accessibility as captured by adaptive models of word production. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Speakers of different languages remember visual scenes differently.

Language can have a powerful effect on how people experience events. Here, we examine how the languages people speak guide attention and influence what they remember from a visual scene. When hearing a word, listeners activate other similar-sounding words before settling on the correct target. We tested whether this linguistic coactivation during a visual search task changes memory for objects. Bilinguals and monolinguals remembered English competitor words that overlapped phonologically with a spoken English target better than control objects without name overlap. High Spanish proficiency also enhanced memory for Spanish competitors that overlapped across languages. We conclude that linguistic diversity partly accounts for differences in higher cognitive functions such as memory, with multilinguals providing a fertile ground for studying the interaction between language and cognition.

Word Recognition in English Place Assimilation by L1 and L2 Listeners: An Eye Tracking Study

This study explores the dynamics of lexical activation by comparing the time course of word recognition between assimilated forms (e.g., ca[tp] in cat box) and noncoronal forms (e.g., ca[p] in cap box). Using the Visual World Paradigm, an eye-tracking method, the main goal was to investigate how gradient modification in place assimilation context influences L1 and L2 listeners’ real time word recognition in English. Twenty native Korean learners of English, as well as fourteen native English listeners took part in the listening task integrated into the eye-tracking experiment. The participants were given aural input in the form of instructions (e.g., look at the cat/cap box) and asked to pick the word they had just heard between two options (e.g., cat or cap) on the screen while or after they listened to the input. Their eye movements over the visual screen while listening, along with their keyboard-press responses were recorded for the main analysis. The results showed both English and Korean listeners displayed higher proportions of fixations on the target (e.g., cat) than on the competitor words (e.g., cap) in assimilation contexts (e.g., ca[tp] box), as well as higher proportions of fixations on targets (e.g., cap) than on competitors (e.g., cat) in non-assimilation contexts (e.g., ca[p] box). However, the discrepancy of fixation proportions between targets and competitors was more obvious for the English listeners than for the Korean listeners. In other words, although the L2 listenersin addition to L1 listeners were able to use acoustic variations when identifying the target phonemes, the L1 listeners revealed a higher certainty level than their L2 counterparts. Furthermore, the divergence points between targets and competitors wereshown to appear earlier for the L1 listeners than for the L2 listeners.

The Presence of Background Noise Extends the Competitor Space in Native and Non-Native Spoken-Word Recognition: Insights from Computational Modeling.

Oral communication often takes place in noisy environments, which challenge spoken‐word recognition. Previous research has suggested that the presence of background noise extends the number of candidate words competing with the target word for recognition and that this extension affects the time course and accuracy of spoken‐word recognition. In this study, we further investigated the temporal dynamics of competition processes in the presence of background noise, and how these vary in listeners with different language proficiency (i.e., native and non‐native) using computational modeling. We developed ListenIN (Listen‐In‐Noise), a neural‐network model based on an autoencoder architecture, which learns to map phonological forms onto meanings in two languages and simulates native and non‐native spoken‐word comprehension. We also examined the model's activation states during online spoken‐word recognition. These analyses demonstrated that the presence of background noise increases the number of competitor words, which are engaged in phonological competition and that this happens in similar ways intra and interlinguistically and in native and non‐native listening. Taken together, our results support accounts positing a “many‐additional‐competitors scenario” for the effects of noise on spoken‐word recognition.

Do Musicians and Non-musicians Differ in Speech-on-Speech Processing?

Earlier studies have shown that musically trained individuals may have a benefit in adverse listening situations when compared to non-musicians, especially in speech-on-speech perception. However, the literature provides mostly conflicting results. In the current study, by employing different measures of spoken language processing, we aimed to test whether we could capture potential differences between musicians and non-musicians in speech-on-speech processing. We used an offline measure of speech perception (sentence recall task), which reveals a post-task response, and online measures of real time spoken language processing: gaze-tracking and pupillometry. We used stimuli of comparable complexity across both paradigms and tested the same groups of participants. In the sentence recall task, musicians recalled more words correctly than non-musicians. In the eye-tracking experiment, both groups showed reduced fixations to the target and competitor words’ images as the level of speech maskers increased. The time course of gaze fixations to the competitor did not differ between groups in the speech-in-quiet condition, while the time course dynamics did differ between groups as the two-talker masker was added to the target signal. As the level of two-talker masker increased, musicians showed reduced lexical competition as indicated by the gaze fixations to the competitor. The pupil dilation data showed differences mainly in one target-to-masker ratio. This does not allow to draw conclusions regarding potential differences in the use of cognitive resources between groups. Overall, the eye-tracking measure enabled us to observe that musicians may be using a different strategy than non-musicians to attain spoken word recognition as the noise level increased. However, further investigation with more fine-grained alignment between the processes captured by online and offline measures is necessary to establish whether musicians differ due to better cognitive control or sound processing.

A real-time mechanism underlying lexical deficits in developmental language disorder: Between-word inhibition

Eight to 11% of children have a clinical disorder in oral language (Developmental Language Disorder, DLD). Language deficits in DLD can affect all levels of language and persist through adulthood. Word-level processing may be critical as words link phonology, orthography, syntax and semantics. Thus, a lexical deficit could cascade throughout language. Cognitively, word recognition is a competition process: as the input (e.g., lizard) unfolds, multiple candidates (liver, wizard) compete for recognition. Children with DLD do not fully resolve this competition, but it is unclear what cognitive mechanisms underlie this. We examined lexical inhibition—the ability of more active words to suppress competitors—in 79 adolescents with and without DLD. Participants heard words (e.g. net) in which the onset was manipulated to briefly favor a competitor (neck). This was predicted to inhibit the target, slowing recognition. Word recognition was measured using a task in which participants heard the stimulus, and clicked on a picture of the item from an array of competitors, while eye-movements were monitored as a measure of how strongly the participant was committed to that interpretation over time. TD listeners showed evidence of inhibition with greater interference for stimuli that briefly activated a competitor word. DLD listeners did not. This suggests deficits in DLD may stem from a failure to engage lexical inhibition. This in turn could have ripple effects throughout the language system. This supports theoretical approaches to DLD that emphasize lexical-level deficits, and deficits in real-time processing.

Prediction of orthographic information during listening comprehension: A printed-word visual world study.

Two visual world eye-tracking experiments examined the role of orthographic information in the visual context in pre-activation of orthographic and phonological information using Japanese. Participants heard sentences that contained a predictable target word and viewed a display showing four words in a logogram, kanji (Experiment 1) or in a phonogram, hiragana (Experiment 2). The four words included either the target word (e.g., /sakana/; fish), an orthographic competitor (e.g., /tuno/; horn), a phonological competitor (e.g., /sakura/; cherry blossom), or an unrelated word (e.g., /hon/; book), together with three distractor words. The orthographic competitor was orthographically or phonologically dissimilar to the target in hiragana. In Experiment 1, target and orthographic competitor words attracted more fixations than unrelated words before the target word was mentioned, suggesting that participants pre-activated orthographic form of the target word. In Experiment 2, target and phonological competitor words attracted more predictive fixations than unrelated words, but orthographic competitor words did not, suggesting a critical role of the visual context. This pre-activation pattern does not fit with the pattern of lexical activation in auditory word recognition, where orthography and phonology interact. However, it is compatible with the pattern of lexical activation in spoken word production, where orthographic information is not automatically activated, in line with production-based prediction accounts.

Influence of within-category tonal information in the recognition of Mandarin-Chinese words by native and non-native listeners: An eye-tracking study

This study investigates how within-category tonal information influences native and non-native Mandarin listeners’ spoken word recognition. Previous eye-tracking research has shown that the within-category phonetic details of consonants and vowels constrain lexical activation. However, given the highly dynamic and variable nature of lexical tones, it is unclear whether the within-category phonetic details of lexical tones would similarly modulate lexical activation. Native Mandarin listeners and proficient adult English-speaking Mandarin learners were tested in a visual-world eye-tracking experiment. The target word contained a level tone and the competitor word contained a high-rising tone, or vice versa. The auditory stimuli were manipulated such that the target tone was either canonical (Standard condition), phonetically more distant from the competitor (Distant condition), or phonetically closer to the competitor (Close condition). Growth curve analyses on fixations suggest that, compared to the Standard condition, Mandarin listeners’ target-over-competitor word activation was enhanced in the Distant condition and inhibited in the Close condition, whereas English listeners’ target-over-competitor word activation was inhibited in both the Distant and Close conditions. These results suggest that within-category tonal information influences both native and non-native Mandarin listeners’ word recognition, but does so differently for the two groups.

Weak adaptation to foreign-accented voice-onset-time distribution

Listeners quickly adapt to foreign-accented speech in transcriptions and word/sentence judgments (Bradlow & Bent, 2008; Clarke & Garrett, 2004; Sidaras, Alexander, & Nygaard, 2009). However, continuous spoken-word recognition measures such as eye tracking have revealed limitations on foreign-accent adaptation. For example, Trude, Tremblay, and Brown-Schmidt (2013) found that English listeners’ adaptation to a second-order constraint in a Quebec French talker’s accent (/i/ = [ɪ] before coda consonants except voiced fricatives) was limited. This study investigates whether foreign-accent adaptation is less limited when the mapping between the accented and underlying words does not require higher-level inferencing. English listeners completed an eye-tracking experiment in which they heard a (female) French talker and a (male) English talker. Target and competitor words began with a voiced or voiceless stop and were otherwise temporarily ambiguous (e.g., timberand dimple). All stops were resynthesized: The French talker’s stops were prevoiced (voiced) and short-lag (voiceless) and the English talker’s stops were short-lag (voiced) and long-lag (voiceless). Preliminary results suggest an effect of voicing only for the French talker, with voiceless-stop targets generating more competition than voiced-stop targets. Importantly, this effect decreased only slightly from the first to the second half of the experiment, suggesting weak foreign-accent adaptation.

An age-related deficit in resolving interference: Evidence from speech perception.

The presence of noise and interfering information can pose major difficulties during speech perception, particularly for older adults. Analogously, interference from similar representations during retrieval is a major cause of age-related memory failures. To demonstrate a suppression mechanism that underlies such speech and memory difficulties, we tested the hypothesis that interference between targets and competitors is resolved by suppressing competitors, thereby rendering them less intelligible in noise. In a series of experiments using a paradigm adapted from Healey, Hasher, and Campbell (2013), we presented a list of words that included target/competitor pairs of orthographically similar words (e.g., ALLERGY and ANALOGY). After a delay, participants solved fragments (e.g., A_L__GY), some of which resembled both members of the target/competitor pair, but could only be completed by the target. We then assessed the consequence of having successfully resolved this interference by asking participants to identify words in noise, some of which included the rejected competitor words from the previous phase. Consistent with a suppression account of interference resolution, younger adults reliably demonstrated reduced identification accuracy for competitors, indicating that they had effectively rejected, and therefore suppressed, competitors. In contrast, older adults showed a relative increase in accuracy for competitors relative to young adults. Such results suggest that older adults' reduced ability to suppress these representations resulted in sustained access to lexical traces, subsequently increasing perceptual identification of such items. We discuss these findings within the framework of inhibitory control theory in cognitive aging and its implications for age-related changes in speech perception. (PsycINFO Database Record

Fuzzy Nonnative Phonolexical Representations Lead to Fuzzy Form-to-Meaning Mappings.

The present paper explores nonnative (L2) phonological encoding of lexical entries and dissociates the difficulties associated with L2 phonological and phonolexical encoding by focusing on similarly sounding L2 words that are not differentiated by difficult phonological contrasts. We test two main claims of the fuzzy lexicon hypothesis: (1) L2 fuzzy phonolexical representations are not fully specified and lack details at both phonological and phonolexical levels of representation (Experiment 1); and (2) fuzzy phonolexical representations can lead to establishing incorrect form-to-meaning mappings (Experiment 2). The Russian-English Translation Judgment Task (Experiment 1, TJT) explores how the degree of phonolexical similarity between a word and its lexical competitor affects lexical access of Russian words. Words with smaller phonolexical distance (e.g., parent–parrot) show longer reaction times and lower accuracy compared to words with a larger phonolexical distance (e.g., parent–parchment) in lower-proficiency nonnative speakers, and, to a lesser degree, higher-proficiency speakers. This points to a lack of detail in nonnative phonolexical representations necessary for efficient lexical access. The Russian Pseudo-Semantic Priming task (Experiment 2, PSP) addresses the vulnerability of form-to-meaning mappings as a consequence of fuzzy phonolexical representations in L2. We primed the target with a word semantically related to its phonological competitor, or a potentially confusable word. The findings of Experiment 2 extend the results of Experiment 1 that, unlike native speakers, nonnative speakers do not properly encode phonolexical information. As a result, they are prone to access an incorrect lexical representation of a competitor word, as indicated by a slowdown in the judgments to confusable words. The study provides evidence that fuzzy phonolexical representations result in unfaithful form-to-meaning mappings, which lead to retrieval of incorrect semantic content. The results of the study are in line with existing research in support of less detailed L2 phonolexical representations, and extend the findings to show that the fuzziness of phonolexical representations can arise even when confusable words are not differentiated by difficult phonological contrasts.

Auditory word recognition across the lifespan: Links between linguistic and nonlinguistic inhibitory control in bilinguals and monolinguals.

Recent research suggests that bilingual experience reconfigures linguistic and nonlinguistic cognitive processes. We examined the relationship between linguistic competition resolution and nonlinguistic cognitive control in younger and older adults who were either bilingual or monolingual. Participants heard words in English and identified the referent among four pictures while eye-movements were recorded. Target pictures (e.g., cab) appeared with a phonological competitor picture (e.g., cat) and two filler pictures. After each eye-tracking trial, priming probes assessed residual activation and inhibition of target and competitor words. When accounting for processing speed, results revealed that age-related changes in activation and inhibition are smaller in bilinguals than in monolinguals. Moreover, younger and older bilinguals, but not monolinguals, recruited similar inhibition mechanisms during word identification and during a nonlinguistic Stroop task. Results suggest that, during lexical access, bilinguals show more consistent competition resolution and recruitment of cognitive control across the lifespan than monolinguals.

The slow developmental time course of real-time spoken word recognition.

This study investigated the developmental time course of spoken word recognition in older children using eye tracking to assess how the real-time processing dynamics of word recognition change over development. We found that 9-year-olds were slower to activate the target words and showed more early competition from competitor words than 16-year-olds; however, both age groups ultimately fixated targets to the same degree. This contrasts with a prior study of adolescents with language impairment (McMurray, Samelson, Lee, & Tomblin, 2010) that showed a different pattern of real-time processes. These findings suggest that the dynamics of word recognition are still developing even at these late ages, and developmental changes may derive from different sources than individual differences in relative language ability.

Learning new vocabulary during childhood: Effects of semantic training on lexical consolidation and integration

Research suggests that word learning is an extended process, with offline consolidation crucial for the strengthening of new lexical representations and their integration with existing lexical knowledge (as measured by engagement in lexical competition). This supports a dual memory systems account, in which new information is initially sparsely encoded separately from existing knowledge and integrated with long-term memory over time. However, previous studies of this type exploited unnatural learning contexts, involving fictitious words in the absence of word meaning. In this study, 5- to 9-year-old children learned real science words (e.g., hippocampus) with or without semantic information. Children in both groups were slower to detect pauses in familiar competitor words (e.g., hippopotamus) relative to control words 24h after training but not immediately, confirming that offline consolidation is required before new words are integrated with the lexicon and engage in lexical competition. Children recalled more new words 24h after training than immediately (with similar improvements shown for the recall and recognition of new word meanings); however, children who were exposed to the meanings during training showed further improvements in recall after 1week and outperformed children who were not exposed to meanings. These findings support the dual memory systems account of vocabulary acquisition and suggest that the association of a new phonological form with semantic information is critical for the development of stable lexical representations.

Talker-specific perceptual adaptation during online speech perception

Despite the ubiquity of between-talker differences in accent and dialect, little is known about how listeners adjust to this source of variability as language is perceived in real time. In three experiments, we examined whether, and when, listeners can use specific knowledge of a particular talker's accent during on-line speech processing. Listeners were exposed to the speech of two talkers, a male who had an unfamiliar regional dialect of American English, in which the /æ/ vowel is raised to /ei/ only before /g/ (e.g., bag is pronounced /beig/), and a female talker without the dialect. In order to examine how knowledge of a particular talker's accent influenced language processing, we examined listeners' interpretation of unaccented words such as back and bake in contexts that included a competitor like bag. If interpretation processes are talker-specific, the pattern of competition from bag should vary depending on how that talker pronounces the competitor word. In all three experiments, listeners rapidly used their knowledge of how the talker would have pronounced bag to either rule out or include bag as a temporary competitor. Providing a cue to talker identity prior to the critical word strengthened these effects. These results are consistent with views of language processing in which multiple sources of information, including previous experience with the current talker and contextual cues, are rapidly integrated during lexical activation and selection processes.

Integrated Speech Recognition And Semantic Classification

A novel system integrates speech recognition and semantic classification, so that acoustic scores in a speech recognizer that accepts spoken utterances may be taken into account when training both language models and semantic classification models. For example, a joint association score may be defined that is indicative of a correspondence of a semantic class and a word sequence for an acoustic signal. The joint association score may incorporate parameters such as weighting parameters for signal-to-class modeling of the acoustic signal, language model parameters and scores, and acoustic model parameters and scores. The parameters may be revised to raise the joint association score of a target word sequence with a target semantic class relative to the joint association score of a competitor word sequence with the target semantic class. The parameters may be designed so that the semantic classification errors in the training data are minimized.

Lexical and syntactic competition effects in verb processing: evidence from corpus-based statistics

Event Abstract Back to Event Lexical and syntactic competition effects in verb processing: evidence from corpus-based statistics Jie Zhuang1*, Barry J. Devereux1, Anna Korhonen1 and Lorraine K. Tyler1 1 University of Cambridge, United Kingdom How verbs are processed in the brain is modulated by whether the verbs’ lexico-syntactic representations are relevant given the context (Tyler et al., 2008). Here we investigate how phonological and syntactic properties of verbs influence processing in the presence or absence of grammatical context. We hypothesized that processes of competition and selection would operate at both lexical (cohort competition; Marslen-Wilson, 1987) and syntactic (competition between possible subcategorization frames (SCFs)) levels. Using CELEX, we defined cohort competition as the ratio of target word frequency to the summed frequencies of competitor words in the same cohort (same two onset phonemes). Using VALEX (a lexicon of verb SCF behaviour derived from large corpora; Korhonen et al., 2006), we defined syntactic competition as the entropy of the verbs’ SCF frequency distributions. In an fMRI study, subjects made lexical decisions to spoken verbs occurring as stems (“sing”) or in phases (“I sing”). For stems, there was a significant effect of cohort competition with greater activation in LIFG (BA45/47) for verbs with strong competitors. There was no effect of syntactic competition, indicating that processing verbs in isolation is insensitive to the verbs’ lexico-syntactic representations. For the phrases, in contrast, there was greater activation in LIFG (BA45/44) for verbs with high syntactic competition but no effect of cohort competition. This suggests that phrasal contexts affect cohort competition by eliminating form-class inconsistent cohort candidates (Tyler, 1983) whilst triggering the activation of lexico-syntactic information (Longe et al., 2007). Furthermore, BA45 might play a general role in processing linguistic competition, activating for both cohort and syntactic competition. Funding: Supported by EPSRC grant EP/F030061/1 (LKT & AK), Medical Research Council (UK) grant G0500842 (LKT) and the Royal Society (UK) University Research Fellowship (AK) Keywords: Language, Verb processing Conference: XI International Conference on Cognitive Neuroscience (ICON XI), Palma, Mallorca, Spain, 25 Sep - 29 Sep, 2011. Presentation Type: Poster Presentation Topic: Poster Sessions: Neural Bases of Language Citation: Zhuang J, Devereux BJ, Korhonen A and Tyler LK (2011). Lexical and syntactic competition effects in verb processing: evidence from corpus-based statistics. Conference Abstract: XI International Conference on Cognitive Neuroscience (ICON XI). doi: 10.3389/conf.fnhum.2011.207.00188 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 19 Nov 2011; Published Online: 28 Nov 2011. * Correspondence: Dr. Jie Zhuang, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom, jzhuang@csl.psychol.cam.ac.uk Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Jie Zhuang Barry J Devereux Anna Korhonen Lorraine K Tyler Google Jie Zhuang Barry J Devereux Anna Korhonen Lorraine K Tyler Google Scholar Jie Zhuang Barry J Devereux Anna Korhonen Lorraine K Tyler PubMed Jie Zhuang Barry J Devereux Anna Korhonen Lorraine K Tyler Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.