Competitive Cyclists Research Articles

On the bike and in the cubicle: The role of passion and regulatory focus in cycling and work satisfaction

ObjectivesTo examine the relationships between cycling passion and satisfaction with cycling and work. First we examine the how two types of passion for cycling (harmonious and obsessive) differentially affect cycling satisfaction. Second, we examine how a passion for cycling can have a spillover effect on work satisfaction. Third, we examine the mediating role of regulatory focus on the relationship between passion and satisfaction. DesignCross-sectional study of U.S. competitive cyclists using an online survey. MethodsSelf-reports of study variables were collected from 119 competitive cyclists, who were also employed in work roles beyond their cycling pursuits. Structural equation modeling techniques were used to examine the relationships between passion, regulatory focus, and satisfaction. ResultsResults from our sample indicate that while holding a harmonious passion for cycling positively relates to both cycling and work satisfaction, an obsessive passion results in diminished work satisfaction. Moreover, results from our mediation analysis indicate that regulatory focus partially mediates the relationships between harmonious passion and both cycling and work satisfaction. ConclusionsThese findings illustrate that not all forms of passion are beneficial to one's pursuits, demonstrate the potential spillover effect of pursuing one's passion for sport and its influence on work satisfaction, and suggest that regulatory focus helps explain the relationship between passion and satisfaction.

Suicide by Competition? Authoritarian Institutional Adaptation and Regime Fragility

While it is clear that contemporary authoritarian incumbents use democratic emulation as a strategy in the hopes of stabilizing and extending their tenure in power, this does not mean it is always effective. Indeed, an extant literature presents strong evidence that the opening of the pursuit of power to electoral competition can make authoritarianism vulnerable. Unless it is mediated by other factors, democratic emulation by authoritarian incumbents cannot simultaneously both stabilize their rule and make it more vulnerable to democratic transitions. These two literatures leave us with a set of contradictory generalizations. Some scholars argue that reiterated multiparty competitive elections present a gradual path from authoritarianism to democracy. Can they at the same time be a source of authoritarian stability? In this paper we seek to resolve this paradox by employing a unique combination of event history modeling to assess how experiences with multiparty elections influence patterns of authoritarian survival and transition in 108 countries from 1946-2010. Our results suggest that while authoritarian regimes face increasing odds of failure during the first three iterated multiparty and competitive election cycles, subsequent iterated cycles are far less dangerous to their survival. Given that few authoritarian regimes survive past three elections, these findings should be seen as more supportive of the democratization by elections thesis than democratic emulation as a way to enhance authoritarian survival.

Parameters of the 3-Minute All-Out Test: Overestimation of Competitive-Cyclist Time-Trial Performance in the Severe-Intensity Domain.

To verify the accuracy of predicting performance in the severe-intensity domain by means of end-test power output (EP) and the work performed above EP (WEP) obtained from a 3-min all-out test in competitive cyclists. Ten welltrained cyclists performed a ramp incremental test and a 3-min all-out familiarization test. Subsequently, they performed a 3-min all-out experimental test to obtain EP and WEP and a 10-min time trial (TT). The actual 10-min-TT mean power output was then compared with the power output predicted as P = WEP/Tlim + EP, where Tlim corresponds to 600 s. The ramp-test peak power output (PPO) was compared with PPO predicted as [Formula: see text], where S represents the ramp slope (0.5 W/s). The actual (347 ± 30 W) and predicted (376 ± 48 W) 10-min TT mean power output were correlated (r = .87, P = .001) but significantly different (P < .01). The coefficient of variation (CV) between the predicted and actual performance was 5.6% ± 4.4%. The error of prediction was positively correlated to EP (r = .80, P = .005) and negatively correlated to WEP (r = -.71, P = .021). No significant difference was found between the 10-min-TT mean power output and EP (351 ± 53 W). The actual (438 ± 30 W) and predicted (472 ± 41 W) ramp PPO were correlated (r = .88, P < .001) but significantly different (P < .001). The CV between the predicted and actual PPO was 5.2% ± 3%. The error of prediction was positively correlated to EP (r = .63, P = .051). EP and WEP obtained from a 3-min all-out test overestimate severe-intensity performance in competitive cyclists.

Influence of saddle height and exercise intensity on pedalling asymmetries in cyclists

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/1980-0037.2016v18n4p411 Pedaling asymmetries quantified during stationary cycling, when cyclist body positioning and intensity remain unchanged, may not fully reproduce the training and competition situations, in which cyclists experience different intensities and may opt for different saddle positioning aiming at power output optimization. Previous studies showed that torque and power can be asymmetric in cyclists. It is not clear whether changes in saddle height and exercise intensity may affect asymmetries. The aim of the present study was to determine pedaling asymmetries during cycling at different saddle heights and different exercise intensities. Twelve competitive cyclists performed an incremental maximal test, a constant-load (“heavy” intensity domain), and a Wingate test. Constant load and the Wingate tests were repeated using three different saddle heights (reference and lower or higher by 2.5% of the distance from the pubic symphysis to the ground). Crank torque was recorded throughout the pedaling cycle. Asymmetry (higher torque for the preferred limb) was found in all saddle heights (p&lt;0.001) in both intensities. Asymmetry index was similar across the saddle positions (p&gt;0.05) in both intensities. Our results suggest that asymmetric cyclists present a consistent pattern regardless of small changes in the saddle height or in exercise intensity. For practical implication, cyclists producing asymmetric torque may be adapted to this condition so they are continuously exposed to asymmetric effort and overload on the lower limbs.

The Effect of Maximal- and Explosive-Strength Training on Performance Indicators in Cyclists.

Cycling economy (CE), power output at maximal oxygen uptake (WV̇O2max), and anaerobic function (ie, sprinting ability) are considered the best physiological performance indicators in elite road cyclists. In addition to cardiovascular function, these physiological indicators are partly dictated by neuromuscular factors. One technique to improve neuromuscular function in athletes is through strength training. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a 20-wk maximal- and explosive-strength-training intervention on strength (maximal strength, explosive strength, and bike-specific explosive strength), WV̇O2max, CE, and body composition (body mass, fat and lean mass) in cyclists. Fifteen competitive road cyclists were divided into an intervention group (endurance training and strength training: n = 6; age, 38.0 ± 10.2 y; weight, 69.1 ± 3.6 kg; height, 1.77 ± 0.04 m) and a control group (endurance training only: n = 9; age, 34.8 ± 8.5 y; weight, 72.5 ± 7.2 kg; height, 1.78 ± 0.05 m). The intervention group strength-trained for 20 wk. Each participant completed 3 assessments: physiology (CE, WV̇O2max, power at 2 and 4 mmol/L blood lactate), strength (isometric midthigh pull, squat-jump height, and 6-s bike-sprint peak power), and body composition (body mass, fat mass, overall leanness, and leg leanness). The results showed significant between- and within-group changes in the intervention group for maximal strength, bike-specific explosive strength, absolute WV̇O2max, body mass, overall leanness, and leg leanness at wk 20 (P < .05). The control group showed no significant within-group changes in measures of strength, physiology, or body composition. This study demonstrates that 20 wk of strength training can significantly improve maximal strength, bike-specific explosive strength, and absolute WV̇O2max in competitive road cyclists.

Neither internal nor external nasal dilation improves cycling 20-km time trial performance.

Research is equivocal regarding endurance performance benefits of external nasal dilators, and currently research focusing on internal nasal dilators is non-existent. Both devices are used within competitive cycling. This study examined the influence of external and internal nasal dilation on cycling economy of motion and 20-km time trial performance. The study utilized a randomized, counterbalanced cross-over design. Fifteen trained cyclists completed three exercise sessions consisting of a 15min standardized warm up and 20-km cycling time trial while wearing either a Breathe Right® external nasal dilator, Turbine® internal nasal dilator or no device (control). During the warm up, heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion and dyspnea and expired gases were collected. During the time trial, heart rate, perceived exertion, and dyspnea were collected at 4-km intervals and mean 20-km power output was recorded. No differences were observed for mean 20-km power output between the internal (270±45W) or external dilator (271±44W) and control (272±44W). No differences in the economy of motion were observed throughout the 15-min warm up between conditions. The Turbine® and Breathe Right® nasal dilators are ineffective at enhancing 20-km cycling time trial performance.

Design and simulation based validation of the control architecture of a stacker crane based on an innovative wire-driven robot

Automated Storage/Retrieval Systems (AS/RS) have an important role in the improvement of the performance of automated manufacturing systems, warehouses and distribution centers. Existing AS/R systems are usually based on Cartesian Storage/Retrieval Manipulators (SRM). Such systems have reached their maximum performance due to the limitations of their underlying mechanical design and associated control architecture. Going beyond the limits of existing systems requires structural innovation and breakthrough solutions to enhance their design and performance. In this study, we introduce the design and simulation based evaluation of a stacker crane based on an innovative wire-driven SRM. We describe the basic components and provide an overview of the mechanical design of the system. We design the high-level control architecture that allows handling mini-load operations. We develop the equations that determine the single and dual command cycle times for the wire-driven SRM in case of random and class-based storage policies. We validate the suggested control architecture using a simulation software specifically developed for this purpose. We benchmark the wire-driven SRM against an equivalent Cartesian SRM. Results show that the new wire-driven SRM design and control architecture are more competitive than Cartesian SRM in terms of travel cycle times, and more suitable for buildings growing in height. We design and evaluate an innovative wire-driven Storage/Retrieval Manipulator (SRM).We determine single and dual command cycle times for random and class-based storage policies.We benchmark the wire-driven SRM against an equivalent Cartesian SRM.The new design and control architecture have more competitive travel cycle times.The new design and control architecture are more suitable for buildings growing in height.

Acute effects of small changes in crank length on gross efficiency and pedalling technique during submaximal cycling

ABSTRACTThe main purpose of this study was to assess the acute effects of small changes in crank length (assumable by competitive cyclists) on metabolic cost and pedalling technique during submaximal cycling. Twelve amateur road cyclists performed three sets of submaximal pedalling (150, 200 and 250 W) at a constant cadence (91.3 ± 0.8 rpm) in a randomised order with three commonly used crank lengths, preferred (172.5–175 mm), +5 mm and −5 mm. Energy cost of pedalling, kinetic and kinematic variables were simultaneously registered. Changes in crank length had no significant effect on heart rate (144 ± 13, 145 ± 12 and 145 ± 13 bpm, respectively) and gross efficiency (GE) (20.4 ± 2.1, 20.1 ± 2.2 and 20.3 ± 2.4%, respectively). A longer crank induced a significant (P < 0.05) reduction of positive impulse proportion (PIP) (0.9–1.9%) due to a greater maximum (1.0–2.3 N · m) and minimum torque (1.0–2.2 N · m). At the same time, the maximum flexion and range of motion of the hip and knee joints were significantly increased (1.8–3.4° and P < 0.05), whereas the ankle joint was not affected. In conclusion, the biomechanical changes due to a longer crank did not alter the metabolic cost of pedalling, although they could have long-term adverse effects. Therefore, in case of doubt between two lengths, the shorter one might be recommended.

Predicting the Sprint Performance of Adolescent Track Cyclists Using the 3-Minute All-out Test.

Waldron, M, Gray, A, Furlan, N, and Murphy, A. Predicting the sprint performance of adolescent track cyclists using the 3-minute all-out test. J Strength Cond Res 30(8): 2299-2306, 2016-This study aimed to predict 500-m time trial (TT) and 2,000-m pursuit speed of adolescent cyclists (age range = 13-15 years) using mechanical parameters derived from a critical power (CP) test and anthropometric variables. Ten well-trained competitive cyclists were assessed for body composition, body mass, stature, and frontal surface area (FSA), as well as completing the CP test. The personal best speed (km·h) of each rider during competition in 500-m TT and 2,000-m pursuit races was predicted based on the CP test data and anthropometric profiles using multiple regression analysis. A combination of the CP·FSA and internal (predicted) to external work ratio performed by the cyclists (Wint:Wext) predicted 500-m TT speed (R = 0.97; standard error of the estimate (SEE) = 0.82, P ≤ 0.001), whereas a combination of mean power·FSA (mean power) and body fat percentage predicted 2,000-m pursuit speed (R = 0.90; SEE = 1.5, p < 0.001). Between 90 and 97% of the variance in the sprint performance of adolescent cyclists can be explained by mechanical and anthropometric parameters, derived from a single visit to the laboratory. The tests and equations provided can be adopted by coaches to predict performance and set appropriate training intensities.

Competitive Cycle of Weapons

Competitive Cycle of Weapons

Pedalling Technique and Postural Stability During Incremental Cycling Exercise – Relationship with Cyclist FMSTM Score

Abstract Purpose of the present study was to examine the changes in the pedalling kinetics and in the ground reaction forces as a measure of the cycling stability during an incremental cycling exercise. Furthermore, we compared the effectiveness of the pedalling technique and postural stability between the high and low Functional Movement Screen score (FMSTM) cyclists and analysed the relationships between the cycling specific postural stability, pedalling kinetics and cyclists FMSTM test scores. 31 competitive cyclists (18.5±2.1y; 1.81±0.06m; 73.7±7.5kg) were categorized based on the (FMSTM) test results in a low (LS, n=19; FMS≤14) and a high (HS, n=12; FMS&gt;14) score group. The pedalling effectiveness and absolute symmetry indexes, as well the ground reaction force (GRF) were measured during incremental cycling exercise. Cycling specific postural stability was expressed as the body mass corrected standard deviation of 3 linear and 3 angular GRF components during a 30sec cycling at four power levels. We found that during incremental cycling exercise the pedalling effectiveness, smoothness and cyclist’s swaying in all three planes increased according to the combined effect of the workload and fatigue. Cyclists with high FMSTM score showed a lower bilateral pedalling asymmetry and a greater cycling specific postural stability, but showed no differences in the pedalling effectiveness and smoothness compared with the LS cyclists. Cyclist’s FMSTM score were moderately related with the stability components acting along the horizontal plane. The pedalling effectiveness, smoothness and bilateral asymmetry were inversely related to the components acting perpendicularly to the horizontal plane.

The Influence of Body Composition on Cadence Efficiency in Competitive Cyclists

Previous research has shown that competitive cyclists tend to ride at cadences higher than what have been found to be the most efficient for them. Several studies have been conducted with the hope of finding what factors determine cadence efficiency in competitive cyclists. To date, there has been limited to no investigation conducted on the relationship between body composition and cadence. PURPOSE: The primary aim of this investigation was to determine the relationship between body composition and cadence efficiency in competitive cyclists. METHODS: In 23 subjects (M/F=15/8, age=32.1 (11.1) yrs) body fat: 18.1 (7.6)%; body mass: 72.9 (7.6) kg; lean mass: 59.7 (8.3) kg; thigh circumference: 50.0 (3.1) cm; VO2max: 57.1 (9.0) ml/kg/min; and preferred cadence: 89 (4.1) rpm) were measured. Efficiency was assessed during two cadence sessions where 3, 5-minute intervals, followed by 5 minutes of rest at a freely chosen cadence were performed on their personal racing bike. The intervals were set at an intensity of 70% of the power output reached at VO2max. During the interval sessions the participants were instructed to maintain cadences of 80-85-90rpm and 95-100-105rpm for the first and second sessions, respectively. Statistical analysis was run using repeated measures ANOVA and correlations RESULTS: Lean mass, body fat %, thigh circumference, and body mass were not significantly associated with cadence efficiency. Preferred cadence was correlated with lean mass (r= -0.465, p= 0.045), thigh circumference (r= -0.630, p= 0.004), and body mass (r=-0.604, p=0.006). In agreement with previous studies, cyclists were most efficient at 80 rpm (23.7 (1.8)%), and least efficient at 105 rpm (22.2 (1.9)%) (p=0.000). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, the body composition measurements were not significantly associated with cadence efficiency. However, preferred cadences was found to have a negative correlation with lean mass, thigh circumference, and body mass. While cyclists were found to be most efficient at 80 rpm, they train and race at faster cadences. Therefore, additional research is needed to determine what factors contribute to a competitive cyclists cadence selection.

A Longitudinal Assessment Of Bone Mineral Density And Content In Competitive Cyclists

Weight supported physical activity, such as cycling, is thought to provide insufficient stimuli to promote osteogenesis even though it incorporates significant muscular loading of bones. Furthermore, auxiliary factors such as dietary restrictions and low body mass in conjunction with confounders such as age, sex, competition level and the type of racing cloud the mechanisms of skeletal adaptations to cycling. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate, in a diverse group of competitive cyclists, how age (18-49 years), sex, USA Cycling Category (elite-4) and racing type (road and multiple bike), influenced bone mass across a season. METHODS: In February, 2014, 42 participants (22 males, 20 females) completed a health history questionnaire, four day dietary log and a Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan. In September, 180 +/- 11 days later, participants repeated the measures. RESULTS: Pre-season subgroup analysis (age, sex, competition level and racing type) revealed significant differences in body composition, diet and cycling characteristics. Bone mineral density (BMD) T-Scores were within healthy limits and not different between groups (P≥0.053). Pre-season Body Mass was a significant correlate of T-Scores for older cyclists (R=0.584) and males (R=0.485), while BMI was a correlate for males (R=0.464). A significant time*group interaction with age suggests older cyclists may increase BMD across the season compared to younger cyclists. Post-season, Body Mass (R=0.623) and Total kcal (R=0.607) were significantly correlated with older cyclist’s T-Score, Total kcal was correlated with T-Score in males (R=0.601), and vitamin D was a correlate in females (R=-0.535). CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that participation in competitive cycling might not have deleterious effects on BMD and BMC as previously demonstrated. T-Score and regional BMD measurements did not significantly decrease across the season for any group; however, certain variables such as body composition, insufficient nutrition and time spent cycling are deserving of further investigation. More importantly, we must work to understand when, where and why cycling may shift from a safe osteogenic activity, as demonstrated by this study, to a possibly dangerous osteoporotic sport, as demonstrated by many others.

Combined Effects of Ischemic Preconditioning and Nitrate Supplementation on Submaximal Cycling Exercise and Time-trial Performance

Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) and dietary nitrate supplementation (DN) have both been shown to modulate nitric oxide (NO) availability. Despite the possibility of a synergistic response, the combined effects of IPC and DN during exercise have yet to be explored. PURPOSE: To determine the effects of IPC alone and in combination with DN on the physiological responses to submaximal cycling and time trial (TT) performance. METHODS: Following an initial maximal exercise test, nine competitive male cyclists (34 ± 6 Yr, V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak: 55 ± 4 mL/kg/min) completed a baseline trial (BASE), and two experimental trials in a double-blind randomized cross-over design. Exercise trials comprised 6 min of cycling at 80% of the ventilatory threshold, followed by a 16.1 km TT. In the experimental trials participants received either 500 mg of DN (chard gel) or a NO3--depleted placebo (PLA) 90 min before completing three cycles of bilateral lower limb IPC at 180 mmHg. Venous blood samples were collected pre- and post-IPC to determine changes in plasma nitrite [NO2-]. V[Combining Dot Above]O2 and HR were continuously monitored during submaximal exercise. RESULTS: Full arterial occlusion was confirmed via coloured Doppler in all trials. Prior to IPC, plasma [NO2-] was higher in DN (774 ± 179 nM, P=0.047) than BASE (576 ± 170 nM) and PLA (544 ± 126 nM, P=0.752). Following IPC plasma [NO2-] increased in PLA (Δ104 ± 149 nM, d=0.70) and DN (Δ42 ± 90 nM, d=0.47), but not significantly (both P>0.2). In the DN trial, resting V[Combining Dot Above]O2 was significantly lower compared to BASE (314 ± 69 vs. 367 ± 30 mL/min, P=0.02) and tended to be lower during exercise (P=0.066). Resting V[Combining Dot Above]O2 was also lower in PLA than BASE (323 ± 62 mL/min, P=0.01) and during exercise (2783 ± 262 vs. 3013 ± 342 mL/min, P=0.04). HR was not significantly different in submaximal exercise (P=0.842). Completion time of TT was not different between conditions (BASE: 1336 ± 73 s, PLA: 1344 ± 88 s, DN: 1344 ± 76 s, P=0.69). Compared to BASE (171 ± 4 bpm), HR was lower following DN (166 ± 4 bpm, P=0.02) but was not different in PLA (169 ± 4 bpm, P=0.60). CONCLUSION: In the present study, IPC with or without DN, altered a number of physiological responses during rest and submaximal exercise, potentially mediated by an increase in plasma [NO2-]. Despite this, there was no evidence for an additive effect and neither intervention altered TT performance.

The First Muscle Oxyhemoglobin Inflection Point Is Correlated To Gas Exchange Threshold And Time-To-Exhaustion During Heavy Intensity Exercise

PURPOSE: The twofold aim of the study was to: 1) compare the gas exchange threshold (GET), the first oxyhemoglobin inflection point ([O2Hb]-T), and perceptual threshold as determined during an incremental exercise test, and 2) investigate the link between each threshold and time-to-exhaustion during heavy intensity exercise. METHODS: Fourteen competitive cyclists performed an incremental exercise test to exhaustion on a cycloergometer to determine the different thresholds and peak workload (Wpeak). The participants then performed a sub-maximal constant workload test (90% Wpeak) to exhaustion to determine time-to-exhaustion. The thresholds were identified from: 1) the first breakpoint in the oxygen uptake vs carbon dioxide output curve (GET), 2) the first muscle oxyhemoglobin inflection point ([O2Hb]-T), and 3) a rating of 13 in perceived exertion (perceptual threshold: RPE13-T). RESULTS: Oxygen uptake at the different thresholds was not significantly different (P > 0.05). Moreover, GET and [O2Hb]-T were significantly correlated: (1) to each other (r ≥ 0.79; P ≤ 0.001) and (2) to time-to-exhaustion (r = 0.81 and r = 0.72, respectively; P < 0.01). RPE13-T, however, was not significantly correlated with the time-to-exhaustion (P = 0.148). CONCLUSIONS: The ‘anaerobic threshold’ as identified from GET was concomitant to [O2Hb]-T. Both thresholds were correlated to time-to-exhaustion, and could therefore be used as a performance index in middle-duration events.

Cadence Dependent Carbohydrate Management at Prolonged Constant Workload

Competitive cyclists prefer cadences above 90 revolutions per minute (RPM) during racing, testing in the laboratory and training although metabolic rate and blood lactate concentration (BLC) are increased compared to 50 to 60RPM. The maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) depicts the BLC that can be maintained over time without a continual accumulation at constant prolonged workload. In cycling no difference in the MLSS was combined with lower power output related to peak workload (IMLSS) at 100 than at 50RPM. MLSS coincides with a respiratory exchange ratio (RER) close to 1. Recently, at incremental exercise an RER of 1 was found at similar workload and similar intensity but higher BLC at 100 compared with 50RPM. PURPOSE: To re-assess a potential effect of cycling cadences on the MLSS and test the hypothesis that the MLSS is higher at 105 than at 60RPM with no difference in IMLSS as input parameters for modelling potential cadence effects on whole body carbohydrate management at MLSS and endurance training relevant lactate concentrations. METHODS: MLSS and IMLSS were determined in a between-subject design (n=16; age:25.1±1.9yrs, height:178.4±6.5cm, body mass:70.3±6.5kg vs. n=16; 23.6±3.0yrs, 181.4±5.6cm, 72.5±6.2kg; Study I) and confirmed using a within-subject design (n=12; 25.3±2.1yrs, 175.9±7.7cm, 67.8±8.9kg; Study II). Modelling IMLSS and cycling at a BLC of 2.0mmol l/1 revealed cadence specific fractions of aerobic rates used for carbohydrate consumption (relCHO). RESULTS: In Study I the MLSS was lower at 60 than at 105RPM (4.3±0.7 vs. 5.4±1.0mmol/l; p=0.003) with no difference in IMLSS (68.7±5.3 vs. 71.8±5.9%. Study II confirmed these findings on MLSS (3.4±0.8 vs. 4.5±1.0mmol/l; p=0.001) and IMLSS (65.0±6.8 vs. 63.5±6.3%; p=0.421). Modelling revealed that for a given relCHO a higher BLC is required at 105 than at 60RPM indicating that steady state cycling at a BLC of 2.0mmol/l at 60RPM resulted in a relCHO of 76% compared to 58% at 105RPM. CONCLUSIONS: The higher MLSS at 105 than at 60RPM combined with an invariance of IMLSS and RER close to 1 at MLSS support the hypothesis that higher cadences can induce a preservation of carbohydrate at given BLC levels during low intensity high volume training sessions.

Cortisol Response During A Bicycling Competition

Cortisol concentration elevates due to physiological and psychological factors. A cyclist’s resting cortisol level will increase in response to endurance training and in response to a bout of high intensity cycling. However, the cortisol response specific to a cycling competition has not been reported. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to measure the salivary cortisol response in cyclists before and after a 40 kilometer state championship cycling competition and to relate this to pre-race nervousness. METHODS: Participants were amateur cyclists (N = 29) competing in a state championship time trial cycling competition. Inclusion criteria consisted of cyclists over the age of 30 years with at least 2 years of cycling experience. Cyclists with a history of endocrine disorders were excluded. Pre-race nervousness was measured within 15 minutes of the race start time with three Likert questions taken from the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory 2. The questionnaire was shortened due to time sensitivity immediately prior to the race start. The questions were as follows: I am concerned about this competition; I feel nervous; and my body feels tense. A sum of the three items produced the final score. This version of the inventory demonstrated good reliability in practice (Chronbach’s alpha = 0.70). Within 10 minutes of the start of the race, a saliva sample was provided. The cyclists’ placed a small cylindrical polymer swab under the tongue for 2 minutes. Saliva samples were stored on dry ice and were assayed in duplicate by radioimmunoassay with a 3% intra-assay coefficient of variation. The same procedure was followed to measure post-race cortisol within 5 minutes of race finish. RESULTS: Cyclists mean age was 42.1 years (SD = 9.0 years). Means (SD) for pre- and post-competition cortisol levels were 9.4 nmol/L (4.1) and 20.8 nmol/L (14.5), respectively. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA indicated cortisol levels increased significantly from pre- to post-competition, F(1, 29) = 11.1, p = .003. There were no significant correlations between pre-race nervousness and either pre- (ρ = -0.11, p = .47) nor post-competition cortisol (ρ = 0.13, p = .42). CONCLUSION: The physiological demand of a competitive cycling event leads to a stress hormone response. The magnitude of this response was not related to psychological nervousness.

Reduced models of grinding wheel topography and material removal to simulate dynamical aspects in grinding

Increasing competition and short product life cycles make it necessary to optimize and evaluate the outcome of manufacturing processes. In tool grinding, models for the final workpiece geometry and cutting forces are of particular interest. To establish a valid general grinding model, we investigated the cutting process and the influence of local grinding wheel engagements on the material removal. We consequently developed models of material removal and grinding wheel topography, which capture the main correlations in grinding. In combination, temporal cutting forces and final workpiece geometry are predictable and are in excellent agreement with experimental data. The introduced models are valid for grinding in general, since they are solely based on the geometry and process parameters, and hence are applicable for manufacturing process optimization.

Effects of saddle angle on heavy intensity time trial cycling: Implications of the UCI rule 1.3.014

The UCI dictates that during sanctioned events, the saddle of the bicycle may be at angle of no more than 3° of forward rotation, so as to prevent performance advantages (Rule 1.3.014). This research investigates the effect on performance when rotating the saddle beyond the mandated angle during a laboratory 4km time trial (TT). Eleven competitive male cyclists (age 26±6 (mean±SD) yrs, height 179.2±6.7 cm, body mass 72.5±6.7  kg; VI‡O 2max 70.9±8.6 ml∙kg- 1 ∙min -1 ) completed laboratory 4km TTs using saddle angles of 0°, 3° and 6°. Completion time and mean power were recorded, in addition to lower appendage kinematics, crank torque kinetics and cardiorespiratory responses. There were no significant changes in TT time, power output,  cardiorespiratory variables or crank torque kinetics as a function of saddle angle ( P> 0.05). There were significant effects on minimum and maximum hip angle and the horizontal displacement of the greater trochanter ( P< 0.05). At 6° the maximum hip angle and forward displacement of the greater trochanter was greater compared to 0° and 3°. Minimum hip angle was greater at 6° than 3° ( P< 0.05). In conclusion, contravening UCI rule 1.3.014 by using a saddle angle beyond 3° does not result in performance advantages during a laboratory 4 km. However, tilting the saddle does appear to cause a forward displacement of the pelvis leading to an opening of the hip angle at the top and bottom of the pedal stroke.

Yellow and social perceptions of racing cyclists’ sportspersonship: Proposing an inter-contextual analysis

ABSTRACTThrough inter-contextual designs, the present set of experiments sought to explore whether the colour yellow would impact on social perceptions of sportspersonship exclusively in relation to competitive cycling. In Experiment 1 (N = 149), a silhouette image of a cyclist on a yellow background yielded lower perceptions of sportspersonship in comparison to grey or to the context of motocross, regardless of the colour. That interaction was conceptually replicated in Experiment 2 (N = 146) while changing measures (i.e., adaptation of the World Anti-Doping Code) and the context of comparison to sprinting. Furthermore, female and male observers’ scores did not differ significantly thereby suggesting that yellow impacted on perceived sportspersonship similarly across gender. On the whole, those findings suggest that yellow can generate negative impressions of racing cyclists because, with years, this colour took on a meaning of opportunism from frequent pairings with doping. We close with discussing a number of limitations and future research avenues.