Competitive Bodybuilders Research Articles

Muscle dysmorphia: a South African sample.

It has recently been suggested that muscle dysmorphia, a pathological preoccupation with muscularity, is a subtype of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). There are, however, few studies of the phenomenology of this putative entity. Twenty-eight amateur competitive body builders in the Western Cape, South Africa, were studied using a structured diagnostic interview that incorporated demographic data, body-building activities and clinical questions focusing on muscle dysmorphia and BDD. There was a high rate of muscle dysmorphia in the sample (53.6%). Those with muscle dysmorphia were significantly more likely to have comorbid BDD based on preoccupations other than muscularity (33%). Use of the proposed diagnostic criteria for muscle dysmorphia indicated that this is a common and relevant entity. Its conceptualization as a subtype of BDD seems valid. The disorder deserves additional attention from both clinicians and researchers.

POTENTIAL NUTRIENT TOXICITIES AND DEFICIENCIES IN COMPETITIVE AMATEUR BODYBUILDERS

The nutrient intake of 9 male and 2 female competitive amateur bodybuilders in Honolulu was estimated by analysis of one-day food/supplement records obtained during both precontest (PC) and offseason (OS) periods of training. Daily nutrient intake values are presented as means ± SD (range). Relatively low intake was observed only for carbohydrate [PC = 2.0 ± 0.4 (0.1–3.8) and OS = 3.8 ± 0.5 (1.0–6.0) g/kg body weight] and dietary fiber [PC = 15.5 ± 2.6 (4–28) and OS = 17.9 ± 3.1 (6–38) g/day]. Protein intake was extremely high [PC = 4.8 ± 0.6 (1.8–8.8), OS = 3.6 ± 0.4 (2.2–5.2) g/kg body weight]. Mean intakes of calcium, magnesium, and niacin exceeded currently established adult Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs). Mean Vitamin B-6 intake exceeded its UL during PC, but not OS. Mean iron and zinc intakes were very high (no current UL established). Mean PC and OS iron intakes were both over 70 mg/day reaching levels as high as 250 mg/day. Mean zinc intakes during both periods were over 50 mg/day with the greatest intake at 158 mg/day. Assessment of nutrient intake from foods, dietary supplements, and fortified sports products found that this small sample of bodybuilders is at high risk for specific nutrient toxicities. Studies with a greater number of athletes are warranted to confirm these results.

Body composition changes in female bodybuilders during preparation for competition.

To determine anthropometric and body composition changes in female bodybuilders during preparation for competition. There was an attempt to match subjects in the control and experimental groups for height and percentage body fat (%BF) for the initial test of this longitudinal study. Five competitive bodybuilders (-X +/- s.d.: 35.3 +/- 5.7 y; 167.3 +/- 3.7 cm; 66.38 +/- 6.30 kg; 18.3 +/- 3.5 %BF) and five athletic females (-X +/- s.d.: 30.9 +/- 13.0 y; 166.9 +/- 3.9 cm; 55.94 +/- 3.59 kg; 19.1 +/- 3.3 %BF) were recruited from advertisements in a bodybuilding newsletter and placed on sports centre noticeboards. The following measurements were conducted 12 weeks, 6 weeks and 3-5 d before the bodybuilders' competitions: anthropometric profile, body density by underwater weighing, total body water via deuterium dilution and bone mineral mass from a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scan. A combination of the last three measurements enabled the %BF to the determined by a four compartment model. A significant (P < or = 0.001) 5.80 kg body mass loss by the bodybuilders as they prepared for competition was primarily due to a reduction in fat mass (FM; -4.42 kg; 76.2%) as opposed to fat-free mass (FFM; -1.38 kg; 23.8%). The decreases in body mass and FM over the final 6 weeks were greater than those over the first 6 weeks. Their %BF decreased (P < 0.001) from 18.3 to 12.7, whereas the values for the control group remained essentially unchanged at 19.1-19.6 %BF. These body composition changes by the bodybuilders were accompanied by a significant decline (P < 0.001) of 25.5 mm (76.3-50.8 mm) in the sum of eight skinfold thicknesses (triceps + subscapular + biceps + iliac crest + supraspinale + abdominal + front thigh + medial calf). Although the bodybuilders presented with low %BFs at the start of the experiment, they still significantly decreased their body mass during the 12 week preparation for competition and most of this loss was due to a reduction in FM as opposed to FFM.

Muscletown USA: Bob Hoffman and the Manly Culture of York Barbell

From the 1930s to the 1980s, the capital of weightlifting in America was York, Pennsylvania, the home of the Barbell Company. Bob Hoffman, the founder of Barbell, propagated an ideology of success for Americans seeking physical improvement. Often called the Father of World Weightlifting, Hoffman was a pioneer in marketing barbells and health foods. He popularized weight training and inaugurated a golden age of American weightlifting. Muscletown USA-part biography, part business history, and part sports history-chronicles how Hoffman made the mecca of manly culture for millions of followers worldwide. Hoffman created his so-called muscle empire out of an oil-burner business that he started in the early 1920s. Within a decade, his passion for sport exceeded his need to produce oil burners and by the outset of the Depression he began manufacturing barbells at the factory. He soon discovered a willing public of aspiring weightlifters like himself who would buy not only barbells but also health and fitness products. Hoffman soon recruited a remarkable group of athletes, whom he tagged his York Gang. He gave these men jobs in the factory, where they trained for national and international meets. Gradually, Hoffman emerged as one of the most prominent muscle peddlers in America, using his fame and fortune to promote competitive weightlifting, bodybuilding, and powerlifting. Muscletown USA reveals other innovations in which Hoffman played a major role, including weight training for athletes, health foods, bottled spring water, isometrics, and women's weightlifting. Even anabolic steroids, first used by weightlifters in the early 1960s, were a direct outgrowth of the fitness culture spawned by Hoffman. Meticulously researched and engagingly written, Fair's book will appeal to a wide range of readers, including anyone fascinated by American sports history and the iron game.

A psychological comparison of females with anorexia nervosa and competitive male bodybuilders: body shape ideals in the extreme

There is accumulating evidence that young men have become as concerned with their physical appearance as young women. However, different from women who want to achieve an ultra-slender body shape, most men want to increase their muscle mass and body size. Women with anorexia nervosa (AN) and competitive male bodybuilders are those who have taken the cultural standards of bodily perfection to the extreme, and both use unhealthy behaviours such as severe food restriction, excessive exercise, and steroids in pursuit of their goals. Findings of this study confirmed our prediction that the psychological profile of bodybuilders would be very similar to that found in women with AN. Both groups were significantly more obsessional, perfectionistic, anhedonic, and pathologically narcissistic than the general population. However, the bodybuilders reported very positive perceptions of their self-worth while the AN patients had very negative perceptions. Results are interpreted in the framework of a speculative developmental model of AN and bodybuilding, which focuses on the role of personality in the initiation and maintenance of excessive behaviours.

Motivations for Anabolic Steroid use Among Bodybuilders

Steroid use is increasing, in parallel with rising concerns about body image. This study aimed to uncover bodybuilders' motivations for using steroids using 135 questionnaires completed by readers of two bodybuilding magazines. The analyses reveal a polarization of beliefs about steroids between users and non-users. Steroid users were less likely to be concerned about the physical side effects, and many believed that steroids are not harmful in moderation, and that only 'ignorant people' criticize steroid use. Their main motivations for using steroids were: wanting to excel at competitive bodybuilding; wanting to be more muscular; and feelings of enhanced confidence. The fact that steroid users in the sample were 'stacking' dangerously high levels of steroids (up to 15 steroids at a time) reveals the need for a detailed understanding of the motivations for steroid use in order to inform the development of effective harm minimization messages.

Changes to bodily appearance: the aesthetics of deliberate intervention

Aesthetic plastic surgery is a branch of medicine using surgical techniques to alter the appearance of patients. In this paper it is considered whether aesthetic plastic surgery should be viewed...

Weight loss, psychological, and nutritional patterns in competitive female bodybuilders

(1998). Weight loss, psychological, and nutritional patterns in competitive female bodybuilders. Eating Disorders: Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 159-167.

Anabolic steroid induced hypogonadism treated with human chorionic gonadotropin.

A case is presented of a young competitive body-builder who abused anabolic steroid drugs and developed profound symptomatic hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism. With the help of prescribed testosterone (Sustanon) he stopped taking...

Testosterone, Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin, Lipoproteins, and Vascular Disease Risk

That men have a higher risk of coronary heart disease has implicated testosterone as a risk factor. Lipoprotein levels have been reported to be altered by androgens, thus increasing the risk of coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, and sudden death. The increasing abuse of anabolic steroids and reports of cases of sudden death and myocardial infarction among bodybuilders have raised concerns about an increase in cardiovascular risk for this population. Twelve competitive bodybuilders were recruited for a comprehensive study on the cardiovascular risks associated with use of anabolic steroids. Six competitive heavyweight bodybuilders ingesting self-directed regimens of anabolic steroids (steroid group) and six competitive heavyweight drug-free bodybuilders were used for cardiovascular risk assessment. Apolipoproteins A-I and B, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, triglyceride, testosterone, and sex hormone-binding globulin levels were determined in each athlete. Total, HDL and LDL cholesterol, apolipoproteins A-I and B, and triglyceride levels were significantly lower in members of the steroid group. As expected, testosterone level was significantly higher in members of the steroid group; sex hormone-binding globulin level was significantly lower. Apolipoprotein and lipoprotein levels were lower in members of the steroid group, whereas the total: HDL cholesterol ratio was significantly higher for members of the steroid group. Consistently with previous reports, androgens were associated with decreases in HDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein A-I levels. However, androgens were also associated with reduced LDL cholesterol and apolipoprotein B levels. Despite the significantly higher total: HDL cholesterol ratio, the low serum total cholesterol levels (within the fifth percentile) and low plasma triglyceride levels in members of the steroid group raise questions concerning the exact role of androgens in increasing risk of cardiovascular disease.

Differences in muscle contractile characteristics among bodybuilders, endurance trainers and control subjects.

The purpose of this investigation was to compare the myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform expression of the triceps brachii muscle and isoinertial, isometric and isokinetic strength indices in competitive bodybuilders (CB, n = 5), recreational resistance trainers (RT, n = 5), endurance-trained rowers (ER, n = 5) and control (C, n = 5) subjects. Muscle tissue samples were analysed for MHC isoform content using 6% sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The CB possessed significantly smaller (P < 0.05) percentage of MHC type IIb proteins [12.92 (SD 7.08)%] than RT [30.08 (SD 6.58)%] ER [31.20 (SD 2.74)%] and C [38.22 (SD 2.95)%] groups (i.e. CB < RT approximately ER < C). While the content of MHC type IIa isoforms did not differ significantly between the two resistance-trained groups [CB = 55.76 (SD 5.38)%; RT = 45.72 (SD 7.8)%], CB presented significantly more type IIa MHC isoforms than ER [42.84 (SD 2.98)%] and C [34.72 (SD 1.57)%] subjects (i.e. CB approximately RT > ER approximately C). The MHC type I protein content did not differ significantly among RT [24.20 (SD 4.89)%] ER [25.38 (SD 1.67)%] and C [27.06 (SD 1.81)%] groups. The CB [31.32 (SD 2.67)%] presented significantly more type I MHC isoforms only in comparison with RT. However, when changes in the percentage of MHC type I isoforms were converted to effect sizes (ES), it appeared that low statistical power rather than the absence of an effect accounted for the nonsignificant differences between CB and other groups (i.e. CB > RT approximately ER approximately C). Significant differences existed in isoinertial strength among the trained athletes (i.e. CB > RT > ER approximately C), while isometric and isokinetic strength were not significantly different among any of the trained groups. However, the ES transformation of data demonstrated that large differences existed between resistance-trained groups and ER for isometric and isokinetic strength (i.e. CB approximately RT > ER approximately C). A statistically significant negative correlation (P < 0.001) was found between MHC type IIb isoforms and isoinertial strength index (r = -0.68). The MHC type IIa proteins were positively related to all the strength measures considered (r = 0.51 0.61; P < 0.001). These data demonstrated different patterns of MHC isoform expression among the different groups of athletes and it is suggested that these differences on occasion may affect the expression of strength.

Left ventricular size and function in elite bodybuilders using anabolic steroids.

To investigate the relationship between resistance training, anabolic steroid use, and left ventricular function. Sixteen competitive bodybuilders were recruited for an echocardiography study. University of North Texas Health Science Center (Fort Worth, TX, U.S.A.); the cardiologist and technician were blinded as to subjects' drug status. Eight competitive heavyweight drug-free (DF) bodybuilders and eight competitive heavyweight body-builders on self-directed regimens of anabolic steroids. Average body mass indexes (BMI; kg/m2) for the drug-user (DU) and DF groups were not significantly different (34.1 +/- 2.8 and 32.0 +/- 4.3, respectively). Increases in left ventricular posterior wall and ventricular septal thickness were apparent in the DU group (p < 0.05). The ratio of echocardiographic findings to BMI revealed a significantly smaller left ventricular end-diastolic dimension (LVDEd/BMI; p < 0.05) in the DU group. The smaller LVDEd in DUs is coupled with a significantly disproportionate septal and posterior wall thickness in DUs when indexed to body mass compared to DFs. There was no direct evidence of diastolic dysfunction detected by mitral inflow velocity patterns. Anabolic steroids may potentiate concentric left ventricular hypertrophy with decreasing ventricular compliance without affecting cardiac function.

Collapsing Gender in Competitive Bodybuilding

This paper discusses conceptualisations of gender, sexuality and the body in the sport of bodybuilding. The paper debates the way the pursuit of bodybuilding produces complex social practices of body discipline. Identity work in the sport of bodybuilding is presented as complex and ambiguous because it rejects traditional categorisations of gender. One reading of gender representations in competitive bodybuilding which is discussed in this paper suggests that female bodybuilders present a threat to a traditional understanding of gender. This reading is critiqued on the basis of ethnographic research covering bodybuilding by both women and men. The paper concludes that aspects of ambivalence and contradiction in sport need to be seen as potentials for the developments of social practices and new identities.

Lipoprotein (a) and cholesterol in body builders using anabolic androgenic steroids.

We examined the influence of self-administered anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) on the lipogram of male body builders. Serum lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a)), total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels were measured in 10 experimental and 8 control male competitive body builders. The proportion of subjects with serum Lp(a) levels above 30 mg.dl-1 was significantly lower in the AAS group than the non-AAS group. HDL-C levels were significantly lower and LDL-C levels significantly higher in the AAS group than the non-AAS group. These data suggest that AAS in male body builders have a beneficial effect on serum Lp(a) levels but reduce the HDL-C:LDL-C ratio.

Comparison Of Eating Disorder Inventory (edi2) Scores Of Male Bodybuilders To The Male College Student Subgroup.

Male bodybuilders report high-protein, low-fat hypocaloric diet patterns similar to those seen in college females with anorexia nervosa and bulimia. The intensity and effort that bodybuilders put into their training suggests obligatory-type behavior, not unlike compulsive eaters and/or compulsive alcohol drinkers, or those with eating disorders. This study surveyed volunteers who identified themselves as competitive or recreational bodybuilders regarding eating behaviors using the Eating Disorder Inventory 2 (EDI2), which has been assessed to be a reliable and valid instrument to screen for tendencies toward eating disorders. Male subjects (n=65) were recruited through announcements in two midwestern and one western university weight lifting clubs, announcements strategically placed on each campus, and phone and/or personal contact by the researchers. A control group (non-bodybuilders/non-weight lifters) (n=41) was recruited from students in non-athletic classes. Subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire composed of questions from the Eating Disorders Inventory 2 (EDI2) and an additional pool of questions. In addition to descriptive statistics, a t-test was used to examine relationships (p ≤ .05) between independent variables (control vs bodybuilder) and dependent variables (EDI2 scores), and between independent variables. EDI2 scores for bodybuilders were significantly different between the subjects and control groups on the Interpersonal Distrust scale. Since this comparison was based on average results for the groups, it does not rule out the possibility that some of the subjects exhibit characteristics typical of eating disorders. It is also possible that the EDI2 is not an appropriate scale to measure eating disorder tendencies in males, especially bodybuilders.

Supplementation Patterns of Competitive Male and Female Bodybuilders

This study described the prevalence of supplement use by 309 male and female competitive bodybuilders. Participants completed a comprehensive survey detailing their supplementation patterns with respect to frequency of product use, spending characteristics, and reasons for use. Supplement use varied with training phase. Protein powder was more popular in the bulking phase, amino acids and fat burners in the cutting phase. Fifty-nine percent of respondents spent $25-100 per month; 4.9% spent over $150. The most popular reason for supplement use was "to meet extra demands of heavy training." In the bulking phase, both weight gain and anabolic supplements were reportedly consumed more frequently by men than women. In the cutting phase, "fat burners" were reportedly consumed by a greater percentage of females than males. The information provided by this study can help sport nutritionists identify supplements most often consumed by bodybuilders and can aid counselors as they guide bodybuilders towards more healthful nutrition practices.

Elite Women Bodybuilders: Ironing out Nutritional Misconceptions

This research examined the nutritional practices and body images of 13 competitive women bodybuilders living in southern California and in the Midwest. Data collection included both structured interviews and survey methods. Findings indicate nutritional health and positive body image among this sample of women. None of the bodybuilders had anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R; American Psychiatric Association, 1987) criteria, were binge eaters or used pathogenic weight control measures. Instead, they reported significant improvement in their nutritional attitudes and behaviors after beginning bodybuilding training. These data suggest a relationship between participating in competitive bodybuilding and other behaviors related to nutrition and self-perception.

Risk factors for anabolic-androgenic steroid use in men

The illicit use of anabolic steroids to enhance athletic performance and physical appearance can cause numerous psychiatric and other adverse effects. In order to prevent steroid use and its negative consequences, knowledge of risk factors is needed. We conducted an anonymous survey of 404 male weight lifters from community gymnasiums who completed a 20-min, self-administered questionnaire. The sample for this study included all 35 men who were thinking about using steroids (“high-risk” nonusers), 50 randomly selected nonusers who were not thinking about using steroids (“low-risk” nonusers) and all 49 steroid users. The three groups differed in age, training characteristics, other performance-enhancers tried, body image, acquaintance with steroid users, and perception of negative consequences. When groups were compared along a continuum from low risk to high risk and from high risk to actual use, we found increasing amounts of competitive bodybuilding, performance-enhancers tried, and steroid-using acquaintances. Groups did not differ in their use of addictive substances. Nearly three-fourths of the high-risk group felt “not big enough,” compared to 21% of the low-risk group and 38% of the steroid users ( p < .001). These data suggest that steroids do work to increase satisfaction with body size, and that dissatisfaction with body size may contribute to the risk of using steroids.

Changes in Psychological State and Self-Reported Diet During Various Phases of Training in Competitive Bodybuilders

This study monitored psychological state, diet, and body composition of male and female bodybuilders (BB) as they prepared for a state championship. Psychological tests administered over 12 weeks reflected a trend for the BB to become more fatigued, depressed, tense, confused, and less vigorous across time. Three-day dietary profiles indicated that daily caloric intake decreased for both sexes. Percentage of calories from carbohydrate, fat, and protein were similar for both; carbohydrate consumption changed little, but percentage of fat decreased and protein increased as competition neared. Because the BB took supplements, the RDA was exceeded for the nine vitamins and minerals analyzed. Vitamin and mineral intake determined from food alone indicated that males were above 70% RDA for all vitamins and minerals except calcium and zinc 1 week prior to competition. Females were below 70% RDA throughout the study for folacin, vitamin E, calcium, potassium, and zinc. The results indicate that BB reduced percent fat to very low levels while consuming a low calorie, low fat, high protein diet, but such an intense regimen may adversely affect psychological state.

Changes in Psychological State and Self-Reported Diet During Various Phases of Training in Competitive Bodybuilders

Changes in Psychological State and Self-Reported Diet During Various Phases of Training in Competitive Bodybuilders