Competitive Strength Research Articles

The strength of competition and market efficiency in determining bank profits

Paying attention to developments in market competition, banking efficiency, and profitability is very important because it will update industry information so that it can be utilized by the early warning system (EWS). Market competition is important in business, so this research is interesting for the public. This research aims to find out the impact of competition and efficiency provide positive synergy on banking profitability. The theoretical basis for problem-solving will use industrial organization thinking, which focuses on the structure conduct performance-efficiency structure hypothesis (SCP-ESH) theory (Abbas & Sheikh, 2023). The research object uses 12 samples of conventional banks in Indonesia, which are included in the top 10 categories of a set of banks during 2012–2021 (quarterly data). The analysis uses panel data regression and statistical analysis. From the research results, it was found that there is a positive synergy between market spread operational cost management efficiency and the intermediation function in banking profitability. However, company size has a negative impact on banking profitability. This research is relevant to the research of Gavurova et al. (2017), who found that the market structure of the banking industry in the European Union was still concentrated. However, market structure is negatively related to banking performance.

Learning mechanism for a collective classifier based on competition driven by training examples

The purpose of this work is to modify the learning mechanism of a collective classifier in order to provide learning by population dynamics alone, without requiring an external sorting device. A collective classifier is an ensemble of non-identical simple elements, which do not have any intrinsic dynamics neither variable parameters; the classifier admits learning by adjusting the composition of the ensemble, which was provided in the preceding literature by selecting the ensemble elements using a sorting device. Methods. The population dynamics model of a collective classifier is extended by adding a “learning subsystem”, which is controlled by a sequence of training examples and, in turn, controls the strength of intraspecific competition in the population dynamics. The learning subsystem dynamics is reduced to a linear mapping with random parameters expressed via training examples. The solution to the mapping is an asymptotically stationary Markovian random process, for which we analytically find asymptotic expectation and show its variance to vanish in the limit under the specified assumptions, thus allowing an approximate deterministic description of the coupled population dynamics based on available results from the preceding literature. Results. We show analytically and illustrate it by numerical simulation that the decision rule of our classifier in the course of learning converges to the Bayesian rule under assumptions which are essentially in line with available literature on collective classifiers. The implementation of the required competitive dynamics does not require an external sorting device. Conclusion. We propose a conceptual model for a collective classifier, whose learning is fully provided by its own population dynamics. We expect that our classifier, similarly to the approaches taken in the preceding literature, can be implemented as an ensemble of living cells equipped with synthetic genetic circuits, when a mechanism of population dynamics with synthetically controlled intraspecific competition becomes available.

The methodology of resistance training is crucial for improving short-medium distance front crawl performance in competitive swimmers: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Resistance training is often a part of the routine training regimen for competitive swimmers. However, due to the variety of resistance training methodology, the results can be inconsistent and sometimes unsatisfactory. Clear recommendations are still lacking at present. 1) Quantify the impact of resistance training on swimmers' upper limb maximum strength, front crawl performance and key technical parameters; 2) Find out the key technical parameters for improving front crawl performance-stroke rate or length; 3) Through subgroup analysis determine the best methodology of resistance training to enhance the front crawl. Systematic search in the PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases. Meta-analyses using the inverse-variance are performed to compare swimmers' upper limb maximum strength, front crawl performance and key technical parameters in resistance training and habitual aquatic training. A subgroup analysis was performed to examine whether the results were affected by the methodology of resistance training. Thirteen studies (267 competitive swimmers) met the inclusion criteria. The results of meta-analysis showed that resistance training significantly improved upper limbs maximum muscle strength, and 25, 50, 100, and 200m front crawl performance in competitive swimmers. And improvements in swimming performance may simply resulted from resistance training increasing stroke rate rather than stroke length. In addition, the results of subgroup analysis showed that only concurrent resistance training (CRT) and power training (PT) ultimately improved swimming performance by increasing the maximum muscle strength of the upper limbs. Resistance training significantly enhances competitive swimmers' upper limb strength and front crawl performance across various distances. The improvement in performance is likely attributed to an increased stroke rate rather than stroke length. In addition, CRT and PT are particularly effective, indicating the importance of selecting the appropriate methodology of resistance training for optimal swimming performance enhancement. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/3JEGW.

Differences in Approach and Avoidance Motivation Sensitivities Predicting Participation and Performance in Strength Sport

Abstract Cusimano, K, Freeman, P, Moran, J, and Yamaguchi, M. Differences in approach and avoidance motivation sensitivities predicting participation and performance in strength sport. J Strength Cond Res 38(1): 180–184, 2024—Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory proposes that individual differences in behavior are due to the sensitivity to 2 brain systems: the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), which regulates aversive emotions to threatening stimuli, and the behavioral approach system (BAS), which regulates positive emotions toward rewarding or nonpunishing stimuli. The current study investigated whether BIS and BAS sensitivity predicts participation and performance in strength sports. A sample of 177 competitive strength athletes (male = 148; female = 29; mean age = 28.68; SD = 6.24 years) and 178 control participants (male = 89; female = 89; mean age = 29.39; SD = 7.42) completed the BIS/BAS scale, with strength athletes also providing their Wilks scores as a measure of sporting performance. Independent t tests showed significantly higher BIS (MD = 2.37, p = 0.003, 95% CI [0.79, 3.94], d = 0.31) and total BAS (MD = 11.71, p < 0.001, 95% CI [9.26, 14.15], d = 1.00) sensitivity in strength athletes than individuals in the control group. A 3-step hierarchical regression analysis revealed that the number of training years (β = 0.506, p < 0 .001), BIS (β = −203, p = 0.005) and BAS drive (β = 0.188, p = 0.012) made significant unique contributions to predicting the Wilks score, with no significant contributions of age, sex, BAS fun seeking, and BAS reward responsiveness. The findings indicate that the overall reward sensitivity (total BAS score) and reward seeking (BAS drive) are associated positively with participation and performance in strength sports, respectively. Given the association of these brain systems to addiction and other psychiatric disorders, the findings could have implications in psychiatric treatment and sporting recruitment.

Logistics Performance, International Trade and Global Competitive Strength: A Conceptual Model Proposal

Logistics Performance, International Trade and Global Competitive Strength: A Conceptual Model Proposal

The Impact of Subsidized Fertilizer Usage on Farmer Welfare in West Java

This study aims to recognize the influence of subsidized fertilizer use on the overall well-being of farmers in West Java. A qualitative analysis was employed to examine the data, using descriptive methods such as interviews and field observations. This method describes and summarizes events related to fertilizer use, offering insights into the practical aspects of fertilizer usage. In addition to the qualitative methods, a quantitative analysis was conducted. Descriptive quantitative techniques were used to assess existing policies, distribution mechanisms, and implementation. This study focused on farmers engaged in the cultivation of rice, corn, and soybeans to evaluate the impact of fertilizer subsidies on the competitive power of these agricultural commodities. The research revealed a significant influence resulting from the use of subsidized fertilizers by farmers. The findings highlight the importance of subsidized fertilizers in improving the well-being of farmers and enhancing the competitiveness of agricultural commodities. When farmers used these subsidized fertilizers, their overall well-being improved. In addition, the use of subsidized fertilizers can enhance the competitive strength of food crops. To maximize benefits, it is essential to continuously improve the system. Repairing and refining the subsidy mechanisms will ensure that farmers experience optimal advantages from the use of subsidized fertilizers. The use of subsidized fertilizers plays a crucial role in enhancing the well-being of farmers in West Java and strengthening the competitiveness of agricultural commodities. Policymakers should continue to support and expand such subsidy programs. However, it is crucial to ensure that these subsidies reach the intended beneficiaries effectively. Therefore, policymakers should regularly review and revise the policies, distribution mechanisms, and implementation strategies associated with these subsidies.

Value Creation after Chinese Firms Acquire Financially Distressed Overseas Firms: Viva’s Acquisition of Clarks Group

Purpose - In recent years, overseas mergers and acquisitions have become a crucial means for many enterprises to enter foreign markets, achieve diversification of corporate brands, expand business scope, increase transaction amounts, and rapidly scale corporate operations. This study aims to investigate value creation by acquirers and potential influencing factors to determine whether companies facing financial difficulties through overseas mergers can generate effective value.
 Design/Methodology/Approach - This study examines post-acquisition value creation by companies through literature review and analysis of financial data from the last three years. It adopts a case study approach, focusing on Viva Goods Company Limited’s acquisition of Clarks in the UK under LionRock. The goal is to explore value creation and influencing factors in this specific context.
 Findings - The study reveals that the issues of target companies in financial distress are concentrated on working capital, while historical advantages and market value do not decline synchronously. Therefore, when facing distressed target companies, the acquiring party can not only revitalize the target company through capital injection to quickly restore operational status, expand market share, and form new competitive strength but also help its own company achieve short-term and long-term stock price increases, thereby gaining profits.
 Research Implications - This study explores factors in value creation, assessing target companies pre-merger, and analyzing post-merger integration for value growth. It focuses on risks and value in financially distressed target companies, aiding enterprises in acquiring distressed overseas firms, serving as a market research case for multinational corporate mergers.

Dynamic price competition market for retailers in the context of consumer learning behavior and supplier competition: Machine learning-enhanced agent-based modeling and simulation

This study analyzes the impact of consumer learning behavior and supplier price competition on retailer price competition in a complex adaptive system. Using machine Learning-enhanced agent-based modeling and simulation, the study applies fuzzy logic and genetic algorithms to model price decisions, and reinforcement learning and swarm intelligence to model consumer behavior. Simulations reveal that different learning behaviors result in different retailer competition patterns, and that supplier price competition affects the strength of retailer price competition. Simulation results demonstrate that consumer learning behavior influences retailer competition, with self-learning consumers leading to higher-priced partnerships, and collective-learning consumers leading to a shift in price competition among retailers. In contrast, perfect rationality consumers result in low-price competition and the lowest average margin and profit. Additionally, the competitive price behavior of suppliers impacts retailers' price competition patterns, with supplier price competition reducing retailer price competition in the perfect rationality consumer market and enhancing it in the self-learning and collective-learning consumer markets, leading to lower average prices and profits for retailers. This study presents a simulated market for price competition among suppliers, retailers, and consumers that can be expanded by subsequent scholars to test related hypotheses.

Negative plant-soil feedbacks disproportionally affect dominant plants, facilitating coexistence in plant communities

Plant-soil feedbacks (PSFs) are suggested to be major drivers of plant species coexistence and exotic invasions in natural plant communities, where species with more positive PSFs are thought to be more abundant in communities. Most evidence for this comes from mesocosm experiments with single species, but whether the results are transposable to diverse plant communities is mostly not verified and remains debated. We performed a combined monoculture and community experiment to test whether PSFs in monocultures predict PSFs in communities, and to infer the role of PSFs in invasive plant success. We found that (1) PSFs from monocultures were poor predictors for PSFs in plant communities, (2) competitive strength of invasive species did not consistently depend on PSF, and (3) dominant species experienced a significantly stronger negative PSFs than non-dominant species when grown in community. Hence, PSFs of plant species in monocultures seem less predictive for their abundance in plant communities or for invasibility than previously assumed. Nevertheless, PSF—and particularly negative PSF—seems indeed a major driver of plant species coexistence, with a strong species-specific pathogenic effect on dominant plants facilitating the persistence of rare species.

IMPLEMENTASI DIGITAL MARKETING TERHADAP PENDAPATAN DAN KEKUATAN BERSAING PELAKU USAHA MIKRO, KECIL DAN MENENGAH (UMKM) DI KABUPATEN TASIKMALAYA

The problems currently being faced by UMKM in Tasikmalaya Regency are lack of stability, low income and hampered competitiveness. One of the main causes is the lack of use of digital marketing in marketing their products. Business actors have not been able to formulate marketing strategies that suit the specified target market, so that UMKM products receive less attention in the market. This results in low competitiveness of UMKM players in the global market and unstable income. In this situation, it is difficult for micro businesses to develop into small or medium businesses. The aim of this research is to determine the implications of digital marketing on the income and competitive strength of UMKM in Tasikmalaya Regency. The research method used is a quantitative method that produces new findings through statistical procedures or other measurement approaches. The subjects used were UMKM in Tasikmalaya Regency who have used digital marketing in their marketing strategies. The research results show that digital marketing has a positive and significant influence on the income and competitive strength of UMKM in Tasikmalaya Regency. The use of digital marketing for UMKM in Tasikmalaya Regency is one of the keys to success in increasing sales. By using digital marketing, UMKM have succeeded in reaching more customers and strengthening their position in the market, thus becoming a solution to increase income and the competitiveness of UMKM.

Joint effects of resource supply and resource types on properties of population dynamic models

Abstract The Lotka–Volterra competition model is the foundation of many ecological theories including competitive exclusion principle, limiting similarity and modern coexistence theory. However, competition between species is often modelled phenomenologically without explicitly considering the underlying mechanisms (e.g. resource competition with various resource supply forms and resource types). Deriving phenomenological models from the first principles and linking parameters in phenomenological models to the mechanisms of competition are critical to advance our understanding of population dynamics and community assembly. Here, we used time‐scale separation to theoretically derive phenomenological competition models from mechanistic consumer‐resource models with different resource supply forms (logistic and chemostatic) and resource types (substitutable and essential). We then compared the performance of the resulting phenomenological models with simulation experiments and observational plant dynamic data during 50 years of succession. We further explored how the resource supply ratio such as nutrient imbalance induced by human activities affected the critical parameters, including species' intrinsic growth rate and interaction strength in phenomenological models and consequently the population dynamics. We found that consumer population dynamics can be described by the Lotka–Volterra competition model when consumers are competing for substitutable or essential resources under logistic supply. In contrast, a novel reciprocal model was derived when consumers are competing for essential resources under chemostatic supply. Results from simulation experiments supported the model derivations. We also found that the reciprocal model outperformed the Lotka–Volterra model in explaining and predicting the population growth of 90 herbaceous plants during 50 years of succession. Moreover, the resource supply ratio affected species' intrinsic growth rates and competitive strengths differently under various resource supply forms and resource types and thus determined competitive outcomes. Synthesis. Our study provides an alternative model (reciprocal model) when organisms compete for essential resources under chemostatic supply and sets up a basis for the selection of phenomenological competition models through the lens of ecological processes and contributes to a more accurate prediction of population dynamics, especially those driven by human‐induced nutrient imbalance.

Becoming a Multilatina: strategic capabilities as necessary conditions for the internationalization of Latin American firms

PurposeThis study aims to challenge the generic interpretation of Multilatinas as Latin American firms that have been able to internationalize because of highly competitive strategic capabilities. The authors test whether capabilities that international business researchers commonly associate with internationalization are necessary at different stages of the internationalization process to better understand the extent to which emerging market (EM) firms need to develop them.Design/methodology/approachInternational business research suggests a positive association between strategic capabilities and firm internalization. However, it remains unclear what specific capabilities are necessary and when they are necessary. These questions are particularly important in the context of the internationalization of firms from emerging economies, such as Latin America. The authors apply necessary condition analysis (NCA) on a sample of Latin American firms at different internationalization stages to test what strategic capabilities represent necessary conditions for becoming a Multilatina.FindingsThe findings suggest that only a few strategic capabilities are necessary for Latin American firms to become “Multilatinas”. While entrepreneurial orientation and marketing and sales capabilities represent necessary conditions, EM firms may internationalize even though other capabilities are developed to a lesser extent. The authors reflect on how shifts in local markets and technology drive the emergence of different types of Multilatinas.Research limitations/implicationsMeasuring strategic capabilities across multiple EM firms implies a risk that firm-specific aspects are not fully captured. While the authors focused on the comparative competitive strength of capabilities and took great care to minimize measurement error, the authors acknowledge possible bias. Also, while NCA does not require a minimum sample size, findings from our sample of firms from four countries may not generalize to the region or other EMs.Originality/valueAs a relatively new statistical technique, the use of NCA has spread rapidly. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the linkage between organizational capabilities and firm internationalization has not been tested from a necessary conditions perspective yet. The reflections on the “Multilatina” concept based on the notion of EM firms as configurations of strategic capabilities inform current debates on EM multinational enterprises.

The Analysis and of the Competitive Strength of the Chinese Taipei Deaf Taekwondo Team from 2007 to 2022

<p>運動競賽攸關該運動發展的重要課題，查閱跆拳道相關文獻資料，發現研究主軸以聽人比賽技戰術或體能類居多，對於歷史文化發展較為漠視。本研究以2007至2022年探究中華聽障跆拳道競賽紀實。透過文獻探討的方式，探究2007至2022年中華聽障跆拳道隊的競賽歷程與探討未來走向，為本研究之目的。研究發現，中華聽障跆拳道隊的競賽實力表現下滑，原因包括選手招募不足、訓練時間不穩定及人才流失。結語，目前中華聽障跆拳道選手招募不易，競賽成績下滑，亟急需政府與相關協會調整施訓制度，挹注經費，鼓勵更多聽障者參與跆拳道訓練，期待未來能再創佳績。</p> <p> </p><p>The performance in sports competitions is a crucial issue that directly impacts the development of the sport, and a review of the relevant Taekwondo literature reveals that research has predominantly focused on the technical and tactical aspects or physical fitness of hearing-impaired athletes, while often neglecting the historical and cultural aspects. This study investigates the competitive records of Chinese Deaf Taekwondo from 2007 to 2022. Through a literature review, it explores the competitive journey of the Chinese Deaf Taekwondo team during this period and discusses its future direction, which is the main objective of this research. The study reveals that the competitive performance of the Chinese Deaf Taekwondo team has been on the decline. The reasons for this include inadequate athlete recruitment, inconsistent training schedules, and a depletion of coaching talent. In conclusion, recruiting Deaf Taekwondo athletes is currently a challenging task, and competitive performance is experiencing a downturn. There is an urgent need for the government and relevant associations to adjust the training system, allocate additional funding, and encourage more hearing-impaired individuals to participate in Taekwondo training. The aspiration is for better achievements to be realized in the future</p> <p> </p>

Financial Planning PT. Luxury Indah Jaya “Premium Laundry Services”

One of the tourism industries that contributes to national development is the hotel industry. The hotel business can support other businesses, whether it is the right place to hold meetings or cooperation agreements, it can also be a place to increase human resource competency through training. The hotel is also a means for family gatherings to relieve fatigue, a place to stay for delegations from fellow countries at state meetings. The existence of a hotel must of course be accompanied by excellent service, including cleanliness and quality of towels and linen for its guests. The presence of a laundry business service that serves hotel needs is very much needed. This business plan offers a premium laundry service specifically for 4 and 5 star hotels. PT. Luxury Indah Jaya (Luxury Laundry) not only offers towel and linen laundry services but also provides towel and linen rental and guarantees the availability of hotel needs. Luxury Laundry has an IFE score of 2.90 and an EFE score of 3.02, where Luxury Laundry's competitive strength is in the medium category based on the results of the Five Forces Portes Model analysis. Luxury Laundry's financial plan is prepared by considering capital requirements and all costs in running a business company. This research aims to analyze Luxury Laundry's financial planning. The method used in this research is qualitative analysis.

The influence of outdoor training on college students’ professional competitiveness: The mediating role of self-efficacy

To explore the relationship and mechanisms of outdoor training, self-efficacy, and professional competitiveness. A questionnaire survey was conducted among 120 college students who received outdoor expansion training for eight days and seven nights in Panlong Grand View Garden of Xiangtan City through the self-efficacy and professional competitive strength scales. The relationship between outdoor development training, self-efficacy, and professional competitiveness is statistically significant (r = 0.736, 0.821, 0.873, P < 0.01). Self-efficacy mediates outdoor training and professional competitiveness, with a mediation effect value of (0.339-0.537). Outdoor development training can directly affect professional competitiveness through self-efficacy. This study only takes the students of Hunan University of Science and Technology as the research object, and the representativeness of the student group needs to be improved. The questionnaire survey results are biased. The findings emphasize the value of outdoor development training. It is proven that outdoor development training not only has a direct impact on professional competitiveness but also has an indirect impact on professional competitiveness through self-efficacy. This study not only verifies the relationship between outdoor development training and professional competitiveness but also reveals the inner psychological mechanism of the influence of outdoor development training on professional competitiveness. Therefore, the results of this study can provide a theoretical basis for promoting college students' professional competitiveness.

Analysis of Will's Acquisition of Omnivision

With the continuous development of the 5G era and artificial intelligence, the development of the semiconductor industry plays an important role in the gross international competitiveness and comprehensive strength. As a matter of fact, China's semiconductor chip industry started late but grew rapidly, which has occupied part of the market by taking advantage of cost. However, as a technology industry, the lack of core technology has become a barrier that blocks the development of China's semiconductor chip industry. Corporate mergers and acquisitions and restructuring have become a way for enterprises to obtain core technology. Therefore, this paper analyses the case of Will's acquisition of Omnivision Technology, introduces the whole basic situation of the case, explores the risks and countermeasures of Will's Shares. According to the analysis, this research summarizes some insights and suggestions, hoping to provide a reference for other enterprises. These results shed light on guiding further exploration of M&A analysis in semiconductor industry.

Research on the operation mechanism and path of regional public brand of agricultural products based on the perspective of industrial clusters

Abstract In this paper, the construction basis of an agricultural regional public brand, the construction main body and the structural model of resource advantageous agricultural regional public brand is discussed in the part of the agricultural regional public brand construction. In the part of the construction of the evaluation model of the competitive strength of agricultural regional public brands, the fuzzy power reconstraint BoD model based on Pareto optimum, Pareto importance criterion, Pareto rule and BoD discriminative criteria, fuzzy group opinion set and the proposed POGF-BoD evaluation algorithm are studied. Finally, an empirical analysis of the competitiveness of agricultural regional public brands was conducted. The results show that the evaluation system for regional public brand competitiveness of agricultural products has an evaluation result of 84.354, with a good evaluation grade. The first-level index brand element’s evaluation result is 88.964, which is the highest score among the four first-level indexes.

A field experiment The effect of planting distances and bazakran herbicide on yield and growth of local cultivar peas(1)

A field experiment was conducted In the winter season for the Rashidieh (1) site for local variety s Peas Pisum sativum L. (2021-2022) using two factors, The first factor is distances which (25,50,75), The second factor is pesticide concentrations which (750, 1,500 and 3,000 ml/ha) in addition to comparator control , Plants were randomly selected with three previous applications. the seeds of the local cultivar the data was analyzed according to the factorial experiments system using R.C.B.D significantly different treatments were distinguished with different letters .The most important results can be summarized as follow : From, the effect table of the three planting distances 25, 50 and 75 cm, it was found that there were no differences in the number of airy and thin leaves, leaves and their weight, and yield characteristics. Jungle eradication, As for the weight of the pod, seed yield and dry weight, it was found that the control treatment gave the least results, and the reason may be due to the strength of competition that occurs between the crop and its accompanying weeds in the field. control gave the highest number of broad and thin bushes and their dry weights in the three distances. As for plant height and pod length characteristic, there were no significant differences.

Innovation and value creation in agriculture: Results of an experimental analysis of the use of sensors on sicilian vineyards of chardonnay cultivars

Innovation represents the company's competitive strength. Without innovation, the company cannot stay on the market. In economic theory, innovation has been strongly expressed as the engine of the development of the enterprise and of the territory. In agriculture, innovation is always an important tool. In this direction, smart agriculture is an innovation that allows the company to remain competitive. This contribution presents the results of an experimental test carried out on Chardonnay vineyard cultivars using sensors that measure soil moisture. Results show that sensors reduce variable costs and improve gross income.

Four scenarios in which shadow competition should be prominent and factors affecting its strength

Shadow competition is the interception of moving prey by a predator closer to its arrival source, preventing its availability to predators downstream. Shadow competition is likely common in nature, and unlike some other competition types, has a strong spatial component (with the exception of competition for space, which clearly also has a spatial component). We used an individual‐based spatially‐explicit simulation model to examine whether shadow competition takes place and which factors affect it in four scenarios considering ambush predators and active prey. First, when prey capture is uncertain (‘the ricochet effect'). Here, the strength of shadow competition increases when it is harder to capture prey after the first unsuccessful capture attempt, whereas shadow competition is moderated if capture success is higher in successive attempts. Second, shadow competition becomes stronger when predators can capture prey arriving only from certain directions. Third, when prey tend to move along a barrier after encountering it. Here, predators located along this barrier may be more successful than those at random positions, but shadow competition in this scenario drastically decreases the capture success of predators in central positions along a barrier (i.e. having more than a single neighbor). Finally, in three‐level systems of plants in clusters, herbivores searching for plants, and predators ambushing herbivores inside plant patches, predators with ambush locations in the periphery of plant patches are more successful than those at the patch center, especially at high predator densities. Our simulation indicates that shadow competition is plausibly relevant in various scenarios of ambush predators and prey, and that it varies based on the habitat structure and capture probability of prey by predators as well as the change in capture probability with successive encounters.