Compensatory Eating Behaviour Research Articles

Development of a scale to measure reasons for eating less healthily after exercise: the compensatory unhealthy eating scale

ABSTRACT Objective: Patterns of ‘compensatory eating’ following exercise are likely to be harmful for long-term health and counterproductive for weight loss goals. However, little is known about reasons why people eat unhealthily after exercising. Thus, we aimed to develop a measure that assesses reasons why people engage in compensatory unhealthy eating. Method: A multi-stage approach using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was used to develop and replicate a scale and validate its psychometric properties in three different samples. Participants (total N = 814) rated their agreement with statements capturing different reasons for eating less healthily after exercise. Results: Factor analysis revealed four distinct factors underlying compensatory eating: Reward for Effort, Permission to Consume, Need to Consume, and Reduced Self-Control. The resulting Compensatory Unhealthy Eating Scale (CUES) had good internal consistency and convergent validity. Conclusion: The CUES has utility as a tool to assess compensatory eating behaviour. Further research should examine who is most likely to compensate and under what circumstances. Broadening current knowledge of compensatory eating after exercise may facilitate development of strategies to improve health behaviour regulation.

Influence of impending healthy food consumption on snacking: Nudging vs. compensatory behaviour

The use of nudging, prompts or primes in the environment aligned with desired goals, as a strategy to promote healthy behaviour has gained increasing attention. Yet, the adoption of healthy behaviours may ironically be frustrated by licensing of competing goals for indulgence, producing compensatory unhealthy behaviours. However, little is known of these unintended compensatory effects of “health” nudging, and the conditions in which engagement of healthy behaviours may continue to activate health goals versus compensatory goals for indulgence. Over two studies, we examined both behavioural phenomena by investigating the influence of impending healthy food consumption on snack intake. We predicted that anticipated engagement of healthy eating will prime healthier eating behaviour (decreased snack intake), unless consumption of an anticipated healthy meal is expected to lead to an energy deficit (a “low calorie” meal), which may instead activate compensatory indulgence (increased snack intake). Study 1 demonstrated that the increase in the saliency of “healthiness” (unrelated to calorie content) from an anticipated meal resulted in lower snack intake (potato crisp consumption). Study 2 revealed that the anticipated consumption of a healthy meal described as low in caloric content promoted compensatory eating behaviour. This maladaptive behaviour was also observed to be associated with the endorsement of weight-regulation-related compensatory health beliefs. Furthermore, the findings also suggest that more restrained eaters (who experience competing goals for health and indulgence) may be especially likely to engage in healthier eating behaviour when anticipating healthy meals that were not portrayed to be low in calories. Taken together, our findings suggest that nudging by increasing the salience of healthy options without implying resulting negative energy balance is an effective strategy in promoting healthy eating behaviour and may be less prone to maladaptive compensatory behaviour, especially for individuals actively regulating their dietary behaviour.

Gender differences in relations between alcohol-related compensatory behavior and eating pathology.

Concerns about caloric intake associated with alcohol use (e.g., fear of weight gain) are positively associated with compensatory eating behaviors (e.g., caloric restriction, self-induced vomiting), a phenomenon that has been identified across gender. Specific motivations for compensatory behaviors differ; some relate to eating disorder (ED) pathology (e.g., shape and weight concerns), and others to alcohol (e.g., enhancing effects). Research examining motivations for alcohol-related compensatory behaviors in men is limited to date. The current study sought to assess how specific types of alcohol-related compensatory behaviors and their association with ED pathology present differently by gender. Undergraduates (N = 530, 48% female) completed the Compensatory Eating Behaviors in Response to Alcohol Consumption Scale (CEBRACS), Eating Disorders Diagnostic Scale (EDDS), and reported height, weight, and frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption. Data were examined using linear regression, and relations between CEBRACS behaviors and eating pathology were compared across gender. Factors that were positively associated with EDDS scores for both men and women included alcohol-related dietary restraint, and exercise. For women, but not men, alcohol-related bulimic behavior also contributed to elevations in EDDS scores. Findings indicate that specific types of alcohol-related compensatory eating behaviors (i.e., dietary restraint and exercise) are positively related to ED pathology for both male and female participants. In contrast, bulimic behaviors' association with ED pathology is gender specific. Understanding gender differences in alcohol-related compensatory behaviors and ED risk may inform gender-specific intervention targets. Cross-sectional descriptivestudy, Level V.

When exercise does not pay: Counterproductive effects of impending exercise on energy intake among restrained eaters

Evidence suggests people may overestimate the effectiveness of future positive behaviour, leading to counterproductive behaviours in the present. Applied to weight-management, we hypothesize that inaccurate expectations about impending exercise may impede weight management by promoting overconsumption prior to exercise. This study aimed to determine how expectations about impending exercise and its potential ability to expend energy may influence i) energy intake before exercise and ii) overall energy balance (energy intake minus energy expended via exercise). Using a randomised, counterbalanced design, 21 inactive, overweight males, following a baseline session, completed two experimental trials: i) ad-libitum snack meal (potato-crisps) followed by an exercise session (SE) and ii) ad-libitum snack meal only (SO). There was no main effect of condition (SE vs. SO) on ad-libitum snack intake (p = .917). However, after accounting for dietary restraint (covariate), a difference in snack intake between SE and SO was revealed (p = .050). Specifically, participants who scored higher in dietary restraint consumed more in the SE (vs. SO) session (162 ± 359 kcal more) compared with participants who scored lower in dietary restraint (89 ± 135 kcal less). Among restrained eaters, the relative (net) energy consumed after accounting for energy expended from exercise in SE was not different from the energy consumed in the SO condition, suggesting that energy expended via exercise in SE does not appear to negate extra energy consumed in this condition compared with SO. Of interest, desire to eat and prospective food consumption ratings at the start of the trial were greater (p ≤ .029) in SE compared with SO. Findings suggest that restrained-eaters are at risk of adopting compensatory eating behaviour that may impede negative energy balance typically resulting from exercise (i.e. expending insufficient energy to negate compensatory energy intake).

No effect of 24 h severe energy restriction on appetite regulation and ad libitum energy intake in overweight and obese males.

Long-term success of weight loss diets might depend on how the appetite regulatory system responds to energy restriction (ER). This study determined the effect of 24 h severe ER on subjective and hormonal appetite regulation, subsequent ad libitum energy intake and metabolism. In randomised order, eight overweight or obese males consumed a 24 h diet containing either 100% (12105 (1174 kJ; energy balance; EB) or 25% (3039 (295) kJ; ER) of estimated daily energy requirements (EER). An individualised standard breakfast containing 25% of EER (3216 (341) kJ) was consumed the following morning and resting energy expenditure, substrate utilisation and plasma concentrations of acylated ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-17-36), glucose-dependant insulinotropic peptide (GIP1-42), glucose, insulin and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) were determined for 4 h after breakfast. Ad libitum energy intake was assessed in the laboratory on day 2 and via food records on day 3. Subjective appetite was assessed throughout. Energy intake was not different between trials for day 2 (EB: 14946 (1272) kJ; ER: 15251 (2114) kJ; P=0.623), day 3 (EB: 10580 (2457) kJ; 10812 (4357) kJ; P=0.832) or day 2 and 3 combined (P=0.693). Subjective appetite was increased during ER on day 1 (P<0.01), but was not different between trials on day 2 (P>0.381). Acylated ghrelin, GLP-17-36 and insulin were not different between trials (P>0.104). Post-breakfast area under the curve (AUC) for NEFA (P<0.05) and GIP1-42 (P<0.01) were greater during ER compared with EB. Fat oxidation was greater (P<0.01) and carbohydrate oxidation was lower (P<0.01) during ER, but energy expenditure was not different between trials (P=0.158). These results suggest that 24 h severe ER does not affect appetite regulation or energy intake in the subsequent 48 h. This style of dieting may be conducive to maintenance of a negative EB by limiting compensatory eating behaviour, and therefore may assist with weight loss.

Validation of the Italian version of the Compensatory Eating and Behaviors in Response to Alcohol Consumption Scale (CEBRACS)

The aim of the study was to evaluate, in a representative sample of high school students, the psychometric characteristics of the Italian version of the CEBRACS scale (Rahal et al., 2011), a questionnaire investigating compensatory eating behaviors correlated with alcohol consumption. These behaviors are adopted to make up for calories consumed through the drinking of alcohol and/or to enhance the intoxicative effects of alcohol. Study participants were selected from an initial sample of 965 students. Out of the 965 youths originally recruited, 640 (376 males and 264 females) reported drinking alcohol over the previous 3months, and were considered eligible for the purpose of the study. The following questionnaires were administered: CEBRACS, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) (Saunders, 1993), and the Eating Disorder Inventory-3 (EDI-3) (Garner, 2004). Test/retest reproducibility was evaluated on a subgroup of 189 youths. The factorial structure, internal consistency, test–retest reliability and concurrent validity of CEBRACS were evaluated. Factor analysis of inter-item correlation indicated 5 factors as being better suited to describe data, with an estimated 68.85% variance: “Alcohol Effect, “Laxative Use”, “Dietary Restraint and Exercise”, “Diuretic Use”, “Restriction and Vomiting”. A high degree of reproducibility and homogeneity (ICC=0.806; Cronbach's Alpha=0.886) of the scale was detected. A significant correlation was revealed between CEBRACS, the three eating disorder risk scales comprised in EDI-3 and scores and clinical risk yielded by AUDIT. The overall reliability and validity of the CEBRACS scale was confirmed in an extensive sample of Italian students, highlighting a satisfactory construct validity, good internal consistency and good degree of reproducibility. In view of the relevance of the problem, associated with serious health risks, a more widespread investigation of the phenomenon should be conducted using evaluation tools of proven validity and reliability on both representative samples of the general population and clinical samples.

Effect of breakfast omission on subjective appetite, metabolism, acylated ghrelin and GLP-17-36 during rest and exercise

ObjectivesBreakfast omission induces compensatory eating behaviour at lunch, but often reduces daily energy intake. This study investigated the effect of breakfast omission on within-day subjective appetite, energy expenditure, substrate utilisation, and appetite hormone profiles, in response to standardised feeding and exercise. MethodsEight male, habitual breakfast eaters completed two randomised trials. Subjects arrived overnight fasted (0 h), and either consumed (BC) or omitted (BO) a standardized breakfast (mean standard deviation [SD]) (3085 [217] kJ). Lunch (4162 [510] kJ) and dinner (4914 [345] kJ) were provided at 4.5 and 10 h, respectively and subjects performed 60 min fixed-intensity cycling (50% VO2 peak) at 8 h. Blood samples were collected at 0, 4.5, 6, and 8 h, with expired air and subjective appetite sensations (hunger, fullness, desire to eat (DTE), and prospective food consumption [PFC]) collected throughout. Heart rate and perceived exertion were measured during exercise. ResultsHunger, DTE and PFC were greater and fullness lower during BO (P < 0.05) between breakfast and lunch, with no differences after lunch (P > 0.193). Resting energy expenditure was greater at 2.5 h during BC (P < 0.05) with no other differences between trials (P > 0.156). Active glucogon-like peptide-1 (GLP-17-36) was greater (P < 0.05) and acylated ghrelin tended to be greater (P = 0.078) at 4.5 h during BC. Heart rate was greater on BO (P < 0.05) during exercise. ConclusionsThe results of this laboratory-controlled study suggest that the effects of breakfast omission are transient and do not extend beyond lunch, even when the negative energy balance created by breakfast omission is sustained via standardised feeding and exercise.

Fasting Leptin Is a Metabolic Determinant of Food Reward in Overweight and Obese Individuals during Chronic Aerobic Exercise Training.

Changes in food reward have been implicated in exercise-induced compensatory eating behaviour. However, the underlying mechanisms of food reward, and the physiological correlates of exercise-induced changes in food reward, are unknown. Methods. Forty-six overweight and obese individuals completed 12 weeks of aerobic exercise. Body composition, food intake, and fasting metabolic-related hormones were measured at baseline, week six, and postintervention. On separate days, the reward value of high-and-low-fat food (explicit liking and implicit wanting) was also assessed at baseline, week six, and postintervention. Results. Following the intervention, FM, FFM, and VO2peak improved significantly, while fasting leptin decreased. However, food intake or reward did not change significantly. Cross-sectional analyses indicated that FM (P = 0.022) and FFM (P = 0.046) were associated with explicit liking for high-fat food, but implicit wanting was associated with FM only (P = 0.005). Fasting leptin was associated with liking (P = 0.023) and wanting (P = 0.021) for high-fat food. Furthermore, a greater exercise-induced decline in fasting leptin was associated with increased liking (P = 0.018). Conclusion. These data indicate that food reward has a number of physiological correlates. In particular, fasting leptin appears to play an active role in mediating food reward during exercise-induced weight loss.

Development and validation of the Compensatory Eating and Behaviors in Response to Alcohol Consumption Scale (CEBRACS)

The goal of the current investigation was to develop and validate a measure to assess an individual's eating-related behaviors related to alcohol consumption, specifically behaviors intended to compensate for calories so that more alcohol could be consumed or restrict calories to enhance the psychoactive effects of alcohol consumption. Two hundred and seventy four undergraduate students (n=51 males; 75.2% Caucasian) completed a newly developed scale, the Compensatory Eating and Behaviors in Response to Alcohol Consumption Scale (CEBRACS), along with measures of eating restriction, bulimia, and body dissatisfaction. An exploratory factor analysis on the CEBRACS revealed the existence of 4 clear-cut factors: alcohol effects, bulimia, dieting and exercise, and restriction. Internal consistency statistics for all subscales ranged from .79 to .95. Pearson product–moment correlations between the CEBRACS and measures of bulimia, restriction, and body dissatisfaction ranged from .04 to .44. T-tests revealed no gender differences in compensatory eating behaviors. Future research directions and limitations of the current study are discussed.

The effects of using a nutrition logo on consumption and product evaluation of a sweet pastry

Nutrition logos have received a great deal of attention to stimulate people to eat a healthier diet. However, very little is known neither about actual consumption behavior related to nutrition logos nor about potential compensatory eating behaviors due to nutrition logos. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of using an existing nutrition logo on consumption and product evaluation of a chocolate mousse cake. A cross-over design was applied with two conditions: a condition with a logo and a condition without a logo. Participants were females recruited in the university community ( n = 36, mean age 22.6 ± 6.3). Data on consumption, tastefulness, perceived healthiness, dietary restraint and Body Mass Index were collected. No significant differences between conditions were found on consumption and tastefulness. The cake was rated as significantly less unhealthy in the logo condition. In conclusion, results cannot be extrapolated to other products, especially not to products that are perceived as healthy. In this study, the use of a nutrition logo did not result in an increased consumption and had no effect on the rating of taste of a sweet pastry among females from the university community.

Variants of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ- and β-adrenergic receptor genes are associated with measures of compensatory eating behaviors in young children

Background: Young children can regulate energy precisely in the short term, showing the potential for an innate compensation mechanism of eating behavior. However, data suggest that precise compensation is attenuated as a function of increasing adiposity, parental feeding style, and age. Common variation in candidate obesity genes may account for some of the individual variation observed in short-term energy compensation. Polymorphisms in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARG) and β-adrenergic receptor (ADRB3) genes have been linked to increased body mass index (BMI; in kg/m2), obesity, and more recently dietary nutrients and preferences. In addition, common variation in ADRB3 interacts with PPARG to modulate adult body weight.Objective: This study investigated whether variants in these genes were associated with measurable effects on child eating behavior.Design: Children (n = 84) aged 4–10 y were prospectively selected for variants of the PPARG locus (Pro12Ala, C1431T). Heights and weights were measured. Energy intake from a test meal was measured 90 min after ingestion of a no-energy (NE), low-energy (LE), or high-energy (HE) preload, and the compensation index (COMPX) was calculated.Results: BMI differed significantly by gene model, whereby Pro12Ala was associated with a lower BMI. Poor COMPX was associated with the PPARG T1431 allele (P = 0.009). There was a significant interaction between COMPX and the ADRB3 Trp64Arg variant in modulating compensation (P = 0.003), whereas the Arg64 allele was associated with good compensation (P = 0.001).Conclusions: This is the first study to suggest that a genetic interaction involving ADRB3 and PPARG variants influences eating behavior in children.

Compensatory consumption: why women go shopping when they’re fed up and other stories

Explores the role and experience of compensatory consumption in women’s lives. Conducts the research from a feminist perspective and asks “what are women’s lived experiences of compensatory consumption?” This is an under‐researched area and yet there are numerous links with other more widely researched areas of consumer research, such as addictive consumption, self‐gift giving and compensatory eating behaviour. Compensatory behaviour and consumption is a difficult area to research, however, and therefore reviews the subject in the light of existing literature, so that a research framework may be advanced to enable a greater understanding of the concept. Presents an overview of this research, together with preliminary findings based on phenomenological interviews. Clearly demonstrates the significance of this area of study within consumer research and proposes an agenda for further research.