Income Comparisons Research Articles

Elite Incomes Around the World: Command over Tradables, Nontradables and Labour

AbstractThis paper shows that cross-country comparisons of elite incomes vary widely and systematically depending on the conception of real income used. It is well known that between-country income inequality is higher using market exchange rates than PPP exchange rates, due to a combination of traded sector bias and the Balassa-Samuelson effect, and we empirically confirm that this is the case for comparing top 1 percent incomes across countries. In contrast, we argue that measuring real incomes of elites using entitlements over labour (ELs), which take local wage costs as the numeraire, leads to the opposite effect: since the non-traded sector is relatively labour-intensive, incomes in the sense of ELs demonstrate non-traded sector bias relative to PPP incomes. They therefore provide a complement, or opposite bound, to the traded-sector bias of market exchange rates. Consistent with this argument, we find that between-country inequality among the world’s national elites is indeed lower using ELs than either PPP or market exchange rates. But elite incomes in ELs do not merely converge: elites in poorer countries leapfrog or overshoot their rich country counterparts, enjoying higher real incomes in terms of their command over domestic labour.

Sex differences in cardiovascular disease in relation to socioeconomic position in the NAKO study

Abstract Background Low socioeconomic position (SEP) is associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk; yet, the underlying pathways are not fully clear and may affect sexes differently. We investigated sex differences in the relationship of SEP with prevalent CVD, cardiovascular risk factors (CRF) and estimated cardiovascular risk in a contemporaneous German population. Methods Data derived from the baseline examination of 204,780 participants in population-based German National Cohort (NAKO). Logistic, multinomial, and linear regression models were used to estimate sex-specific odds ratios (OR) and beta-coefficients with 95% confidence intervals (CI) of CVD, CRF and very high-risk score (SCORE2 ≥7.5% (age 40-49 years) or ≥ 10% (age 50-69 years)) associated with educational attainment and relative income. Women-to-men ratios of ORs (RORs) with 95%-CI were estimated. Results In women compared to men, low vs. high SEP was more strongly associated with obesity, overweight, self-reported myocardial infarction and hypertension, elevated blood pressure values, antihypertensive medication, and alcohol consumption, but less strongly related to smoking. In women with the lowest vs. highest educational level, the OR for a very high 10-year CVD risk was 3.61 (95%-CI 2.88; 4.53), compared to 1.72 (95%-CI 1.51; 1.96) in men. The women-to-men-ROR was 2.33 (95%-CI 1.78; 3.05), attenuated after age-adjustments. For the comparison of low vs. high relative income, the odds of having a very high 10-year CVD risk was 2.55 (95%-CI 2.04; 3.18) in women, and 2.25 (95%-CI 2.08; 2.42) in men (women-to-men ROR, 1.31 (95%-CI 1.05; 1.63). Conclusions In both sexes, there was an inverse graded relationship between SEP and the likelihood of prevalent CVD and CRF, with stronger associations in women than in men. Although women had a lower estimated 10-year CVD risk compared to men, the likelihood of having a very high CVD risk conferred by low SEP vs. a high one was higher in women than in men.

Pharmacy School Affordability for Pharmacy Technicians From 2004 to 2022

ObjectiveThis study aimed to evaluate the trends in pharmacy technician wages relative to pharmacy school tuition and fees for the first professional year (P1) from 2004 to 2022, and to assess the affordability of pharmacy education for those currently employed as technicians in a pharmacy. MethodsThis observational cross-sectional study used data from the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics to calculate median disposable incomes for pharmacy technicians and the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy Tuition Trends Database to calculate cumulative sums of P1 in-state tuition and mandatory fees for pharmacy students. The primary outcome was the national change in the tuition affordability ratio, defined as the comparison of median disposable income with median total tuition and fees for P1. Changes in the tuition affordability ratio for the most affordable programs in each state were analyzed as a secondary outcome. ResultsThe study found that from 2004 to 2022, the median disposable income of pharmacy technicians nationally increased from $20,103 to $33,255, while median P1 tuition and fees rose from $13,223 to $36,183. The median tuition affordability ratio decreased from 1.52 in the 2004–2005 academic year to 0.92 in 2022–2023, indicating a 40% reduction in affordability. State-specific analysis revealed varying affordability ratios, with only Pennsylvania and Rhode Island showing an increase in affordability. ConclusionThe study highlights a significant decline in the affordability of pharmacy education, raising concerns about the economic barriers faced by prospective pharmacy students and calling for a reevaluation of financial strategies within the field.

Social Comparisons Under Pandemic Stress: Income Reference Groups, Comparison Patterns, and the Subjective Well-Being of German Students

People use social comparisons to reduce uncertainty when facing new or stressful situations. This study explores how a stressful experience, the COVID-19 pandemic, changed how people compare their income. It relates these changes to subjective well-being (SWB). We use a repeated cross-sectional dataset of students at two German universities from before and during the pandemic. A novel survey instrument is employed to identify individualized reference groups used for income comparison and to analyze whether the comparison pattern changed. Our results reveal that, while there was little change in the size of the reference groups, there was some difference in the group composition. During the pandemic, survey respondents were more likely to select two types of individuals into their reference groups: relatives and people they only knew from social media. Income comparisons were beginning to have a negative association with SWB, while the relation had been positive before the pandemic. Moreover, upward income comparisons increased.

Comparison of farming income for leek and Batu 55 tangerines in Batu City

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Analisis Perbandingan Pendapatan dan Kesejahteraan Keluarga Karyawan Panen dengan Karyawan Panen dengan Karyawan Perawatan di PT. Socfin Indonesia (SOCFINDO) Kebun Aek-Loba, Kabupaten Asahan Provinsi Sumatera Utara

This study aims to find out 1. The wage system of harvest and maintenance employees at PT Socfindo, 2. Comparison of family income of harvesting and maintenance employees 3. Comparison of family welfare of harvest and maintenance employees at PT. Socfin Indonesia Aek-Loba Plantation. This study used a quantitative method by descriptive. The research location was chosen purposively at PT. Socfin Indonesia Aek-Loba Gardens. Sampling method uses purposive sampling technique and data collection method uses descriptive quantitative or descriptive statistics to determine income comparisons and welfare comparisons between families of harvest employees and families of maintenance employees at PT. Socfin Indonesia Aek-Loba Gardens. The research results obtained are 1. The wage system of harvest and maintenance at PT. Socfin Indonesia Aek-Loba plantations pay system which is given to harvest employees using a time unit system and yield units then maintenance employees use a time unit system. 2. Comparison of family income of harvesting and maintenance employees at PT. Socfin Indonesia Aek-Loba Plantation is a significant difference of IDR 1,227,549. 3. There is no significant difference between the welfare of the families of harvest employees and the maintenance at PT.Socfin Indonesia, Aek Loba Garden, Asahan Regency, North Sumatra.

T-test analysis for income comparison between members and non-members of livunzu cooperative in chikwawa district, Malawi.

Abstract This study examines the relationship between agricultural cooperatives and farmers’ income. Agricultural cooperatives have been a well-known avenue for improving small-scale farmers’ economic well-being by widening access to resources, markets and collective action. A simple random sample of 293 rice farming households was surveyed. The study employed the use of descriptive statistics to describe the characteristics of the respondents. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data in a household survey targeting cooperative and non-cooperative members. The study employed the use of SPSS package version 28 in data analysis. T-test analysis was used to establish the statistical differences in means of the cooperative and non-cooperative member farmers. It was established that being in a cooperative improves income in rice farming. The results suggested that policies aimed at improving farmer’s access to market power, and production modalities are important intervention avenues that can affect the income of rice farming in the area. The understanding of the relationship between cooperatives and farmers’ income is important for policy makers, development workers and the farmers in their effort to enhance the economic well-being of the farmers.

ANALISI PERBANDINGAN PENDAPATAN SEMANGKA NON BIJI DAN SEMANGKA BIJI DI KELOMPOK TANI MILENIAL (POKTAN MILENIAL) DESA NOELBAKI KECAMATAN KUPANG TENGAH KABUPATEN KUPANG

This research aims to determine the analysis of non-seed watermelon and seeded watermelon in the Millennial Farmer Group (Poktan Millenial) in Noelbaki Village, Central Kupang District, Kupang Regency, followed by finding a comparison of the income of non-seed watermelon and seeded watermelon farmers. The location was determined deliberately based on certain considerations, because this location is one of the watermelon producing areas in the Millennial Farmers Group (Poktan Millennial). The method used in this research is quantitative descriptive using revenue analysis and income analysis. The results of this research show that the income from non-seed watermelon farming is greater when compared to seeded watermelon farming. Where non-seed watermelon farming income is more than IDR 40,968,613, while seed watermelon farming income is IDR 16,137,863. The comparison of income from non-seed watermelon farming and seed watermelon farming of Rp. 24,830,750 hah is proven that the results of the t-count test are known. The t-count value is 3.092> the t-table value is 2.073. Thus, there is a very significant difference between non-seed watermelon farming and seed watermelon farming. Comparative analysis of the income of non-seed watermelon and seeded watermelon in the Millennial Farmer Group (Poktan Millennial) has a significant effect on farmer income.

Less work and higher tax can raise wellbeing

AbstractWorktime has been falling slowly though real wages have risen dramatically. We show that in a general equilibrium model with CES utility and production functions, worktime falls with real wages if and only if the elasticity of substitution between consumption and leisure is less than that between capital and labour, but always rises with labour's income share and concerns with relative income. While a falling labour share may not reduce worktime due to market inflexibility, stronger income comparison increases inefficient overwork. Hence, more flexibility, higher income taxes and a basic income are needed to reduce working hours and raise social welfare.

Analisis Biaya Produksi Dan Harga Jual Dalam Menentukan Laba Bersih

Fashion is currently growing rapidly from year to year. Fashion in this world is very influential in its development of war, culture, politics, economic, social movements and many other supporters who take part in changing the existing fashion. Indi's Collection is a convection company which is the case study in this research. In determining the calculation of the cost of production, the Indi's Collection Convection still uses a very simple method and has not yet detailed all costs incurred in the production process. This study aims to find out the production cost calculations that have been carried out by the company in determining net profit on the Indi's Collection convection. selling price calculations that have been carried out by the company in determining Net Profit at Indi's Collection convection, calculating Production Costs using the Full Costing method, calculating Selling Prices using the Cost Pricing method – Plus, equal to find out whether there are differences in the calculation of Production Costs and Selling Prices based on company calculations using the full costing method and the cost-plus method in determining net profit on the Indi's Collection convection. The results of this study explain that the calculation of production costs carried out by Indi's Collection is still relatively simple without theoretical methods such as the cost accounting theory used in companies that produce a product. The selling price used is the market price of products of the same quality or can be calculated using the mark up method. The full costing method affects the cost of production produced in much more detail and is cheaper than the calculation obtained from the results of interviews with business owners. The use of Cost plus pricing in Indi's Collection can increase turnover and competitive prices by producing a much larger turnover at the previous selling price. At the selling price used, Indi's Collection is more relevant because the price used is the market price of similar products used in other convections. In the comparison of net income, Indi's Collection is considered to be inadequate in describing the cost of production and expenses contained in the income statement, so that the allocation of the translation in the financial statements is considered inappropriate. Keywords: Production Cost Analysis, Selling Price, Net Income

Maddison‐style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update

AbstractThis paper surveys the literature on historical national accounting, discusses the importance of relative income benchmarks for, in particular, historical income estimates, and presents an update of long run global economic development with a new version of the Maddison Project Database (MPD). As benchmarks are central to methodologies for global income comparisons over time, and therefore vital to MPD, we analyze the consequences and biases of three benchmarks, the 1990 benchmark, the 2011 benchmark and the multiple benchmark method following the recent Penn World Tables (PWT) methodology, for pre‐1940 income estimates. We develop a methodology to determine which benchmark in combination with time series produces the best anchor for the historical income estimates in the MPD. We conclude that the best way forward for the Maddison Project is to stick to the original 1990 benchmark, yet with two important changes. First, we integrate the 2011 benchmark for the post‐1990 period, and second, we fine tune the dataset for the pre‐1940 period by integrating a new historical benchmark for the US/UK comparison in 1909. By integrating more benchmarks, the MPD moves closer to a multiple benchmark approach as developed by the PWT.

Decomposing household income differences between farmers and non‐farmers: Empirical evidence from Norway

AbstractIncome comparisons between farm and non‐farm households play a crucial role in many aspects of farm policy. Using household income data from tax returns of all Norwegian taxpayers in the period 2006–2015 we study these income differences. We find that the unconditional mean income is higher for farm households, but with important differences depending on the comparison group considered. We also find that the income difference is reduced when we control for differences in the personal characteristics of the different non‐farm comparison sub‐groups. This finding implies that income comparison using unconditional means, as frequently done in agricultural policy making, is potentially misleading. We also show that the income effect of personal characteristics is not the same for different comparison sub‐groups, as has been assumed in previous studies of income disparities. Differences in personal characteristics, and the income effect of those characteristics, therefore need to be accounted for if income comparisons between farmers and non‐farmers are to inform farm support policies.

Analysis of Contribution and Comparison of Original Regional Income (PAD) of Lombok Tengah Regency Before and After the Development of the Mandalika Special Economic Zone

This research aims to analyze the contribution and comparison of Lombok Tengah Regency's Original Regional Income before and after the development of the Mandalika Special Economic Zone. This research uses quantitative methods. The location of this research is in Lombok Tengah Regency, while the research object is Regional Original Income before and after the development of the Mandalika Special Economic Zone. The data analysis used is contribution analysis and comparison tests using the paired sample t test. The research results show that: (1) The contribution of regional taxes before the construction of the Mandalika SEZ was 25.30% and 38.27% after the Mandalika SEZ construction. (2) The contribution of regional levies before the construction of the Mandalika SEZ was 10.60% and 8.16% after the construction of the Mandalika SEZ. (3) The contribution to regional wealth management results that were separated before the construction of the Mandalika SEZ was 5.25% and 4.67% after the construction of the Mandalika SEZ. (4) Other legitimate PAD contributions before the construction of the Mandalika SEZ were 58.85% and 51.43% after the Mandalika SEZ construction. (5) There is a difference in regional taxes before and after the construction of the Mandalika SEZ with a significance value of 0.010. (6) There are no differences in regional levies, results of separated wealth management, other PAD and local original income before and after the construction of the Mandalika SEZ with significance values of 0.788, 0.896, 0.786, 0.377.

Fairness perceptions mediate the relationship between income comparisons and subjective well-being: evidence from Türkiye

ABSTRACT In this article, we explore to what extent fairness perceptions mediate the relationship between income comparisons and subjective well-being. Using data of 1100 Turkish respondents collected amid the Turkish economic crisis, we find that people who attach more importance to income comparisons with others report lower subjective well-being levels. Mediation models indicate that fairness perceptions and negative affect fully mediate the relationship between these income comparisons and subjective well-being.

Systematic comparison of household income, consumption, and assets to measure health inequalities in low- and middle-income countries

There has been no systematic comparison of how the three most common measures to quantify household SES—income, consumption, and asset indices—could impact the magnitude of health inequalities. Microdata from 22 Living Standards Measurement Study surveys were compiled and concentration indices, relative indices of inequality, and slope indices of inequality were calculated for underweight, stunting, and child deaths using income, consumption, asset indices, and hybrid predicted income. Meta-analyses of survey year subgroups (pre-1995, 1995–2004, and post-2004), outcomes (child deaths, stunting, and underweight), and World Bank country-income status (low, low-middle, and upper-middle) were then conducted. Asset indices and the related hybrid income proxy result in the largest magnitudes of health inequalities for all 12 overall outcomes, as well as most country-income and survey year subgroupings. There is no clear trend of health inequality magnitudes changing over time, but magnitudes of health inequality may increase as country-income levels increase. There is no significant difference between relative and absolute inequality measures, but the hybrid predicted income measure behaves more similarly to asset indices than the household income it is supposed to model. Health inequality magnitudes may be affected by the choice of household SES measure and should be studied in further detail.

Perbandingan Pendapatan Usahatani Jagung Berdasarkan Etnis Petani Di Desa Sidodadi Kecamatan Sangkub Kabupaten Bolaang Mongondow Utara

This study aims to identify the comparison of corn farming income based on the ethnicity of farmers in Sidodadi Village, Sangkub Subdistrict, North Bolaang Mongondow Regency. The data collection method used in this research is primary data obtained through direct interviews to respondents and secondary data obtained from relevant government agencies in the research location. Sampling sampling used is Simple Random Sampling (Simple random sample) the sample is taken randomly. which will be sampled as many as 15 samples consisting of 5 Javanese Ethnic, 5 Minahasa Ethnic, and 5 Gorotalo Ethnic. The results of this study indicate that the highest total income of each ethnicity is Javanese Ethnicity with a total income of IDR 4,420,714 and the lowest total income is Gorontalo Ethnicity with a total income of IDR 1,635,625.

Does joining online groups increase farmers' incomes in the mountainous areas of northern Vietnam? The role of information

PurposeThis study analyzes whether farmers' incomes increase as they participate in online groups.Design/methodology/approachThe study analyzed interview data from 673 farming households in three mountainous provinces of northern Vietnam, utilizing the propensity score matching (PSM) method.FindingsThe empirical results reveal that farmers participating in online groups, particularly those engaged in 1–3 groups, experience an increase in their income attributed to the three advantages of sharing-accessing-saving (SAS) information. Farming households engaged in online groups earn higher incomes, ranging from equivalent to 25.78 to 26.96 USD, in comparison to those who do not participate. Notably, farmers participating in 1–3 online groups outpace their counterparts in 4–5 groups in terms of income.Research limitations/implicationsThis study exclusively focuses on examining farmers' total income derived from all their agricultural activities and does not quantify the specific impact of online group participation on the income generated by each product. Furthermore, it is important to note that the PSM method has the potential to introduce bias due to unobserved factors, such as social networks and local culture. Consequently, future research should prioritize the segmentation of income from individual agricultural products, distinct from the overall income, to gain a more nuanced understanding of each product’s sensitivity to information exchanged in online groups. Simultaneously, accounting for unobserved factors is crucial to obtain unbiased estimates.Originality/valueThis study represents the inaugural exploration into the comparison of farmers' incomes within a novel context – participation in digital-based groups. Furthermore, it extends the inquiry by delving into the correlation between the number of online groups joined and farmers' income. The empirical findings indicate that farmers may benefit the most by limiting their participation to a select few groups that align with their information needs and analytical abilities.

Why does the schooling gap close while the wage gap persists across country income comparisons?

The schooling gap diminishes because the services sector becomes more pronounced for high-income countries, and the paid hours gap closes. Although gender wage inequality persists across country income groups, differences in schooling years between females and males diminish. We assemble a novel dataset, calibrate a general equilibrium, multi-sector, -gender, and -production technology model, and show that gender-specific sectoral comparative advantages explain the paid hours and schooling gap decline from low- to high-income economies even when the wage gap persists. Additionally, our counterfactual analyses indicate that consumption subsistence and production share heterogeneity across both income groups and genders are essential to explain the co-decline of the schooling and paid hours gaps. Our results highlight effective mechanisms for policies aiming to reduce gender inequality in schooling and suggest that the schooling gap decline and the de-invisibilization of female paid work observed in high-income countries are linked by structural sector movements instead of wage inequality reductions.

Comparative Analysis of Income Before and After Using QRIS at the Bintang Mawar Ayam Pedas Depot in Balikpapan

Based on Bank Indonesia Regulation No.21/18/2019 concerning the implementation of the international QRIS standard for payment, starting January 1 2020 Bank Indonesia requires all non-cash payment service providers to switch to the QRIS (Quick Response Code Indonesian Standard) system. This requires UMKMs to provide QRIS as a means of payment to make transactions easier. This research aims to find out and analyze the comparison of income at the Bintang Mawar Ayam Pedas Depot before and after using QRIS. Data collection techniques include interviews and documentation. The collected data was then analyzed using descriptive data, normality test, and partial test (t-test) using SPSS 26.0. The results of the t test calculation show a sig value. amounting to 0.006 0.05, so it can be concluded that there is effectiveness of QRIS to increase income at the Bintang Mawar Ayam Pedas Depot, the average increase per month at the Bintang Mawar Ayam Pedas Depot is IDR. 5,522,111.

잔여지 보상에 관한 법적과제

As a public project, the project operator installs railways, roads, high-voltage lines and steel towers, rivers, old houses, parks, sports facilities, etc., and the remaining land is left in a long linear form, or becomes irregular and the value of the remaining land falls, or the remaining land is returned to its original state. If it is significantly impossible to use it for its intended purpose, compensation for acquisition or depreciation of the remaining land may be claimed. In addition, if new passages, ditches, fences, etc. in the remaining land are needed or other construction is required in the remaining land, compensation for the construction costs of the remaining land can be claimed.
 However, not only are the residual land compensation requirements under the Land Compensation Act strictly applied, but the expropriated person is unable to properly prove whether the remaining land is a piece of land, whether the value of the remaining land has decreased, and that it cannot be used for its original purpose, so purchase and expropriate the remaining land. Not only was the claim not accepted for decision, but there were cases where the request was dismissed without going through a decision even though the requirements for a claim for purchase and expropriation of the remaining land were met.
 In particular, when a project operator compensates for residual land, the Land Expropriation Act lacks specific provisions on fair compensation, or the standards for compensation for residual land must be specifically determined in the Land Compensation Act and the Enforcement Decree of the same Act in accordance with the legal reservation principle, but it is operated under the guidelines of the Minister of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. What is happening is reality.
 Therefore, after identifying the concept and requirements of residual land compensation, we seek implications by reviewing legislative examples of residual land compensation in Korea, Germany, France, Japan, and the United States. Residual land compensation and fair compensation, introduction of a system for hearing opinions of expropriated persons as a preliminary rights relief procedure for those subject to residual land compensation, expansion of claims for purchase and expropriation of residual land and claims for loss compensation through rationalization of residual land compensation requirements, and profit recovery system for the increase in value of residual land. Presents legal challenges regarding introduction. In other words, in order to provide fair compensation for the loss of remaining land in accordance with Article 23 of the Constitution, various measures such as transaction comparison case law, cost approach law, and income comparison law should be legislatively prepared in the Land Compensation Act to reflect fair market value. In addition, the concept of a group of land and residual land should be specifically specified in the Land Compensation Act, and compensation requirements should be relaxed so that the expropriated person can claim compensation for residual land, as is the case in legislation such as Germany, France, and the United States, and the value should be guaranteed as much as possible. In addition, the Land Compensation Act requires the project operator to notify the expropriator of the details and list of compensation for losses on the remaining land when purchasing and expropriating land for public projects, as is the case in the United States, and as a preliminary relief procedure for the Land Expropriation Committee’s decision on the remaining land compensation. A residual land compensation deliberation committee must be established to hear opinions.