Comparison Girls Research Articles

Buffers of peer rejection among girls with and without ADHD: the role of popularity with adults and goal-directed solitary play.

We investigated a risk-resilience model in 91 girls with ADHD and 58 age- and ethnicity-equated comparison girls, who participated in all-female naturalistic summer research camps. The hypothesized risk factor was peer rejection (assessed via sociometric nominations), with criterion measures including multiinformant composites of aggressive behavior and anxious/depressed symptoms. The two hypothesized protective factors were the girls' popularity with adult staff (assessed via staff ratings) and objective observations of goal-directed solitary play. Peer rejection was related to higher levels of aggressive behavior and depressed/anxious behavior, confirming its status as a risk factor. Next, for all girls, popularity with adults predicted lower levels of aggression and goal-directed solitary play predicted lower levels of anxiety/depression. Whereas popularity with adults was most protective among the peer-accepted subgroup, solitary play was most protective among the peer-rejected subgroup. Diagnostic status (ADHD versus comparison) moderated the findings such that engaging in meaningful solitary play was a stronger predictor of lower levels of anxious/depressed behavior in girls with ADHD than in comparison girls. We discuss the need for replication in prospective research and implications for research and intervention regarding the social functioning of peer-rejected children, particularly those with behavior disorders.

The Social Behaviors and Peer Expectation of Girls With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Comparison Girls

Investigated self-described social goals, self-generated actions, and perceived peer responses to hypothetical vignettes, as well as observed social behavior and peer sociometric status, in an ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of girls with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n = 49) and comparison girls (n = 30). Although we found no differences between the social goals of girls with ADHD and comparison participants, girls with ADHD generated higher rates of aggressive responses to the hypothetical vignettes than did comparison girls, whereas comparison girls generated a larger number of negotiating behaviors than did the ADHD sample. The ADHD participants anticipated negative peer responses, whereas comparison girls predicted positive reactions from peers. Importantly, these perceived peer responses showed associations with girls' naturalistic social behaviors and peer sociometric status. Several pertinent predictions held with control of ADHD versus comparison status. Social cognitions appear to be relevant in the investigation of ADHD in girls.

The Social Behaviors and Peer Expectation of Girls With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Comparison Girls

The Social Behaviors and Peer Expectation of Girls With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Comparison Girls

Patterns of friendship among girls with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Examined patterns of friendship participation, stability, and quality among previously unfamiliar, ethnically diverse girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n = 140) and comparison (n = 88) girls, aged 6-12 years, who attended 5-week naturalistic summer camps. Each girl completed sociometric nominations during Weeks 1, 3, and 5 of the camps; friendships were indexed by examining patterns of reciprocal nominations. At each assessment point, girls with ADHD had fewer mutual friends and were more likely to have no friends. Girls with Combined-type ADHD exhibited difficulties maintaining friendships from the beginning to middle of camp, whereas girls with Inattentive-type ADHD demonstrated poor friendship stability from the middle to end of camp. In general, girls with ADHD had higher levels of negative relationship features-including conflict and relational aggression-than did comparison girls, but levels of positive relationship features did not differ across subgroups. Friendship status predicted positive and negative peer regard, controlling for Verbal IQ and diagnostic status. Overall, although girls with ADHD were able to make friends to some extent, they differed from comparison girls in terms of the likelihood of doing so, the ability to maintain the friendships that they did form, and the levels of negative features found in their friendships.

Observed classroom behavior of children with ADHD: relationship to gender and comorbidity.

Examined hypothesized gender and comorbidity differences in the observed classroom behavior of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The behavior of 403 boys and 99 girls with ADHD, ages 7-10, was compared (a) to observed, sex-specific classroom behavior norms, (b) by sex, and (c) by comorbid subgroups. Boys and girls with ADHD deviated significantly from classroom norms on 15/16 and 13/16 categories, respectively. Compared to comparison girls, girls with ADHD had relatively high rates of verbal aggression to children. Boys with ADHD engaged in more rule-breaking and externalizing behaviors than did girls with ADHD, but the sexes did not differ on more "neutral," unobtrusive behaviors. The sex differences are consistent with notions of why girls with ADHD are identified and referred later than boys. Contrary to hypothesis, the presence of comorbid anxiety disorder (ANX) was not associated with behavioral suppression; yet, as hypothesized, children with a comorbid disruptive behavior disorder (DBD) had higher rates of rule-breaking, and impulsive and aggressive behavior, than did children with ADHD alone and those with ADHD+ANX. Elevated rates of ADHD behaviors were also observed in children with comorbid DBD, indicating that these behaviors are truly present and suggesting that reports of higher ADHD ratings in this subgroup are not simply a consequence of negative halo effects and rater biases.

Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: I. Background characteristics, comorbidity, cognitive and social functioning, and parenting practices.

This study investigated a diverse sample of girls (6-12 years of age) with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), combined type (n = 93) and inattentive type (n = 47), plus age- and ethnicity-matched comparison girls (n = 88), who participated in research summer programs. Speech and language problems, grade retention, and adoption characterized the ADHD sample; documented abuse characterized the combined type. Girls with ADHD showed dysfunction in terms of externalizing and internalizing behaviors and comorbidities, cognitive and academic performance, authoritarian parenting, and peer status. The inattentive type was more socially isolated but less rejected by peers than the combined type. ADHD-related impairment was independent of age and disruptive comorbidity. Further examination of processes related to psychopathology and competencies in girls with ADHD is needed.

Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: II. Neuropsychological performance in relation to subtypes and individual classification.

This study examined executive functions, motor speed, and language processing in a diverse, preadolescent sample of 93 girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) combined type, 47 ADHD inattentive type, and 88 age- and ethnicity-matched comparison girls. Testing was performed without stimulant medication. All 10 neuropsychological variables showed significant omnibus subgroup differences, with 8 of 10 combined versus comparison contrasts significant (average effect size medium) and 6 of 10 inattentive versus comparison contrasts significant (average effect size small to medium), but only 2 of 10 combined versus inattentive contrasts significant (average effect size small). Results were robust to statistical control of demographic variables, comorbidities, and IQ. Discriminant function analysis revealed relatively high sensitivity but only modest specificity in predicting ADHD from comparison status from test performance; classification of the inattentive type was extremely poor.

Separating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and learning disabilities in girls: a familial risk analysis.

Familial risk analysis was used to clarify the relationship in girls between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities in either mathematics or reading. The authors assessed the presence of ADHD and learning disabilities in 679 first-degree relatives of three groups of index children: girls with ADHD and a comorbid learning disability, girls with ADHD but no learning disabilities, and a comparison group of girls without ADHD. The risk for ADHD was similarly higher in families of ADHD probands with and without learning disabilities; both groups had significantly higher rates of ADHD than did families of the comparison girls. In contrast, only among relatives of ADHD probands with a learning disability was there a higher risk for learning disabilities. A strong (although statistically nonsignificant) difference emerged that suggested at least some degree of cosegregation of ADHD and learning disabilities in family members. There was no evidence of nonrandom mating between spouses with ADHD and learning disabilities. These results extend previously reported findings regarding the relationship of ADHD and learning disabilities to female subjects and raise the possibility that, in girls, the relationship between ADHD and learning disabilities is due to shared familial risk factors.

Circulating plasma leptin and IGF-1 levels in girls with premature adrenarche: potential implications of a preliminary study.

Premature adrenarche is a condition characterized by precocious development of pubic and/or axillary hair, due to early onset of adrenal androgen secretion. Girls with premature adrenarche may later develop menstrual irregularities, hyperandrogenism, and the classic polycystic ovary syndrome. As leptin is thought to modulate the onset of pubertal development, we measured plasma leptin levels in 7 girls with premature adrenarche, and 8 age-matched comparison girls. Because leptin, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA), the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes are functionally interrelated, we also determined salivary and plasma cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA-sulfate, androstenedione, estradiol, and estrone. Finally, since IGF-I may play a role in adrenocortical function, we determined plasma levels of IGF-1, and IGF-BP1. Plasma was collected by an intravenous catheter at times 0, 20, and 40 min, starting at 1.30 p.m. Girls with premature adrenarche had a higher body mass index (BMI) and an over two-fold elevation of their plasma leptin than comparison girls. This group also had elevated levels of salivary and plasma cortisol, and increased levels of DHEA, DHEA-S, androstenedione, estradiol and estrone. Plasma IGF-1 and the ratio of IGF-1/IGF-BP1 were elevated. We propose that girls with premature adrenarche may represent an overlapping group characterized by both features of increased adiposity and HPA axis activity, which together, and depending on the genetic/constitutional background of the individual, may account for the development of adrenal hyperandrogenism, and, later, the polycystic ovary syndrome.

Social Network Constellation and Sexuality of Sexually Abused and Comparison Girls in Childhood and Adolescence

This longitudinal study examines how childhood and early adolescent (age 6 to 15) peer and nonpeer social networks relate to sexual attitudes and behaviors in adolescence and young adulthood (age 12 to 25) for sexually abused and comparison girls. A large number of male peers in childhood is related to heightened sexual activity, sexual preoccupation, increased sexual pressure, and risky sexual behavior in adolescence. High-quality, female, nonpeer relationships have a positive effect on attitudes toward casual sex. Multiple group models illuminate several cross-lag group moderators: (a) Abused girls who are happier with male nonpeers are less preoccupied with sex; (b) abused girls who are happier with male peers are more likely to use birth control; and (c) abused girls who have early physical relationships are more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior. Treatment implications include monitoring the effects of low-status peer groups, encouraging contact with female role models, and encouraging the formation of high-quality relationships with male peers and nonpeers.

Autism spectrum and attention - deficit disorders in girls. Some neuropsychological aspects

This study compared the neuropsychological test profiles of non-mentally retarded girls and boys consecutively referred to a neuropsychiatric clinic and those of contrast cases of girls from mainstream classrooms of one Göteborg school district. To avoid overreliance on the male prototype with regard to diagnostic criteria the clinical group comprised a mixed sample of girls and boys without diagnostic subgrouping. Clinic girls had a lower IQ than comparison girls. Girls were more impaired than the boys with respect to executive functions and scored less well on theory of mind tasks. Previous studies have shown girls with autism and mental retardation to be more severely affected than boys both with regard to level of intellectual functioning and overall measures of brain dysfunction. The present study indicates that clinic girls with a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders at higher levels of intellectual functioning (some of which met diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder) may also be more severely affected than boys with corresponding types of "surface" problems.

Family study of girls with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Because attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is relatively infrequent among girls, little is known about the causes of ADHD in girls. To help fill this gap in the literature, the authors assessed the familial transmission of ADHD in families ascertained through girls. Interviewers who were blind to diagnosis administered structured psychiatric interviews to 140 girls with ADHD and their 417 first-degree relatives and to 122 girls without ADHD and their 369 first-degree relatives. The relatives of the ADHD girls had a significantly higher prevalence of ADHD, according to either the DSM-III-R or DSM-IV definition, than the relatives of the comparison girls. However, this did not differ from the prevalence the authors reported previously for families of boys with ADHD. Like the boys' families, the relatives of the girl probands also had significantly higher prevalences of antisocial, mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders, although the prevalence of familial antisocial disorders was lower than had been observed in the boys' families. There was no association between the DSM-IV subtypes of the probands and relatives. The familial transmission of ADHD and comorbid disorders generalizes to families of girls with ADHD. Neither proband gender nor subtype influences the familial transmission of ADHD.

Clinical Correlates of ADHD in Females: Findings From a Large Group of Girls Ascertained From Pediatric and Psychiatric Referral Sources

The scientific literature about attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is based almost exclusively on male subjects, and girls with ADHD may be underidentified and undertreated. The aim of this study was to examine clinical correlates of ADHD in females using comprehensive assessments in multiple domains of functioning. Subjects were 140 girls with ADHD and 122 comparison girls without ADHD ascertained from pediatric and psychiatric referral sources of the same age and social class. Subjects were assessed with structured diagnostic interviews, psychometric tests assessing intellectual functioning and academic achievement, as well as standardized assessments of interpersonal, school, and family functioning by raters who were blind to clinical diagnosis. Compared with female controls, girls with ADHD were more likely to have conduct, mood, and anxiety disorders; lower IQ and achievement scores; and more impairment on measures of social, school, and family functioning. These results extend to girls previous findings in boys indicating that ADHD is characterized by prototypical core symptoms of the disorder, high levels of comorbid psychopathology, and dysfunction in multiple domains. These results not only support findings documenting phenotypic similarities between the genders but also stress the severity of the disorder in females.

Raters' Views of the Problems and Competence of Adolescent Girls

This study had 3 goals: (a) to identify the raters who could find adolescent girls in need of mental health services, (b) to identify the raters who could find adolescent girls eligible for special education services, and (c) to determine the relation between behavior problems and competence for hospitalized and comparison samples of girls. We obtained the ratings of parents, teachers, and youth for 16 girls who had been treated in a psychiatric hospital and 16 girls who had not been treated, for total behavior problems and competence, according to Achenbach's Child Behavior Checklist (1991a), Child Behavior Checklist Teacher Form (1991b), and Youth Self-Report Form (1991c). We found that parents identified their hospitalized daughters as clinically disturbed and in need of mental health services, and that parents of hospitalized girls were the only raters who had any significant agreement with teachers and could contribute to finding girls eligible for special education. We also found, within and across raters of comparison girls, a significant and negative correlation between the constructs of behavior problems and competence, a finding that has implications for treating girls' behavior problems by boosting their academic competence.

A Pilot Study of Neuropsychological Function in Girls With ADHD

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is known to have neuropsychological consequences that are evident from psychological tests and from measures of school failure. However, most available data are based on studies of boys. Our goal was to assess, in this pilot study, whether ADHD in girls expressed neuropsychological features similar to those found in boys. Subjects were 43 girls, aged 6 to 17 years, with DSM-III-R ADHD and 36 comparison girls without ADHD. Information on neuropsychological performance was obtained in a standardized manner blind to clinical status. Girls with ADHD were significantly more impaired on estimated IQ than comparison girls despite being matched on other demographic variables. Relative to comparison girls, the girls with ADHD were also significantly more impaired on the Freedom From Distractibility subtests of the WISC-R and on arithmetic and reading achievement scores. Although their mean performance on executive function tests was generally poorer than that of control girls, there were no statistically significant differences on these measures. Girls with ADHD have impairments in some tests of attention and achievement. However, neuropsychological performance on tests of executive function was less impaired than that previously documented in boys with ADHD. If confirmed in a larger sample, these findings suggest that girls with ADHD may be less vulnerable to executive function deficits than boys.

A family-genetic study of girls with DSM-III attention deficit disorder

The authors evaluated family-genetic risk factors in girls with attention deficit disorder and compared these results to findings in the authors' previous study of boys with attention deficit disorder. Twenty-one girls with attention deficit disorder and 20 normal comparison girls were consecutively ascertained from a pool of existing and new referrals from a pediatric psychopharmacology unit and a medical pediatric unit of the same urban hospital. First-degree relatives of the attention deficit disordered girls (N = 69) and of the normal girls (N = 71) were also assessed. Both groups of girls and their relatives were evaluated on the basis of structured diagnostic interviews conducted by raters who were blind to the clinical status of the probands. The relatives of the girls with attention deficit disorder had higher risks for attention deficit disorder, antisocial disorders, major depression, and anxiety disorders. The higher risk for attention deficit disorder could not be accounted for by gender or generation of relative, age of proband, social class, or family intactness. These findings are highly consistent with the findings in the authors' previous study of boys with attention deficit disorder, which was conducted with identical methods. This study provides further support for the validity of the diagnosis of attention deficit disorder in girls and suggests that the genders share a common biological substrate.

Long‐Term Effects of Early Kwashiorkor Compared with Marasmus. I. Physical Growth and Sexual Maturation

SummaryPhysical growth and sexual maturation were measured in a follow‐up study of Barbadian girls and boys aged 11–18 years with histories of kwashiorkor (n 54) or marasmus (n 56) in their first year of life. They were compared with healthy neighborhood children matched by sex and age who had normal patterns of growth in early childhood (n 59). Girls with histories of marasmus hail significant delays in the onset of menarche compared with healthy comparison girls. However, their rate of growth during the previous 2 years was accelerated, and the differences in size were smaller than at the earlier testing, confirming catch‐up. This pattern was not evident for girls with histories of kwashiorkor, who did not differ from the healthy comparison girls on either onset of menarche. Tanner ratings of sexual maturation, or measures of physical growth. In contrast, boys with histories of kwashiorkor or marasmus did not differ from healthy comparison boys in physical growth or Tanner ratings at these ages.

A follow-up study of the effects of early malnutrition on subsequent development. I. Physical growth and sexual maturation during adolescence.

A follow-up study of growth and development was conducted on 216 Barbadian children aged 9 to 15 yr, half of whom had histories of moderate to severe protein-energy malnutrition in their 1st yr of life. Although index girls had significant delays in sexual maturation and were reduced relative to comparison girls on measures of weight for height, arm circumference, and skinfold thickness, their rate of growth when compared with values obtained 4 yr earlier was equal to or better than that of the comparison group. In contrast, boys in the index group were slightly reduced in height compared with their matched comparisons and had similar patterns of growth and sexual maturation. This study suggests a relationship between an episode of infantile malnutrition and impaired endocrine functioning among girls in the adolescent years.

A comparison of characteristics in the families of patients with anorexia nervosa and normal controls.

The present study compared families of patients with anorexia nervosa with families of non-anorexic adolescent daughters of a similar social class. All anorexics and adolescent comparison girls and their parents were studied using a variety of psychometric measures. Body size estimation and physical anhedonia were also measured. Family characteristics were assessed using the Family Assessment Measure (FAM). Contrary to the hypotheses, no abnormalities were found in terms of parental attitudes to weight control or dieting. The mothers of anorexics displayed no increase in psychopathology on any of the measures. The fathers scored very similarly to controls but with higher degrees of conscientiousness. Neither fathers nor mothers displayed abnormalities of their own body size estimates or body satisfaction. On the FAM the anorexic families reported an increased pathology on several sub-scales. It is not possible to say whether these disturbances are part of the pathogenesis or are sequelae to the illness.

A Study of the Interaction of Hispanic Junior High School Students and Their Teachers

Forty Hispanic junior high school girls divided into target and comparison subsamples were matched with target and comparison teacher subsamples to form student-teacher dyads. Dyad members simultaneously recorded their own and each other's behavior on a 41-item behavioral checklist. The data were analyzed to determine differences in behavior reported for the four subsamples, the effects of the various dyadic combinations upon behavior, and the extent of agreement between student and teacher raters. The behavior of the target girls was found to differ significantly in target and comparison teacher classrooms. While students indicated a difference in the behavior of teachers towards comparison versus target girls, teachers indicated no difference in their behavior towards the two groups.