Community Sanitation Research Articles

Actively engaging women is helping solve the global water crisis

Abstract Water For People's programs strive to improve the quality of life for Everyone – every family, clinic, and school – Forever. However, women and girls are disproportionately affected by lack of access to safe water and adequate sanitation. This is due to having to spend time fetching water, looking for a toilet, or caring for sick family members instead of going to school and working. Actively striving for gender parity in community planning and decision-making brings a more holistic view to water and sanitation and encourages more women to become community leaders and water professionals. In Water For People's experience, the active participation of women increases understanding of community water and sanitation issues and enhances solutions to help end the global water crisis.

Analysis Of The First Pilar Community-Based Total Sanitation Implementation

The implementation of Community-Based Total Sanitation starts from the first pillar of open defecation which is the entrance to total sanitation. ODF conditions are marked by 100% of the community having access to Defecate in their own latrine, there is no dirt in their environment, and they are able to maintain the cleanliness of the latrine (Health Minister Regulation No.3 of 2014). In the City of Bengkulu, from 19/67 triggering Village / Sub-district, achievements of the new ODF village 7 villages / Sub-district. The research objective was to analyze the implementation of the first pillar Community Based Total Sanitation. This type of research is qualitative research with descriptive research methods. The informants in this study amounted to 6 people consisting of the Head of the Community Health Center and sanitation officers. The results showed that in implementing the first pillar community-based total sanitation in Bengkulu City there was policy support from the government, namely the Republic of Indonesia Health Minister's Regulation No. 3 of 2014, there were still energy workers, funding sources for implementation came from Health Operational Assistance funds, availability of facilities and infrastructure in the form of brochures, leaflets, counseling, and FGD. The process was carried out starting from the pre-triggering phase by conducting technical preparations, observing Clean and Healthy Life Behavior, arranging triggering schedules and locations, triggering by holding meetings with the community, triggered by the outbreak of disease transmission, growing disgust, shame and fear of illness and post-triggering by looking at the village with ODF village status, building community commitment and mentoring and monitoring triggering activities. The output of the Village in the City of Bengkulu with the status of the SBS headman varies from 25%, 50%, and 100%. It is recommended to develop further analysis and results, in particular, to deepen the analysis of the implementation of the first pillar community-based total sanitation and the factors contributing to the success of ODF Villages.

Shared latrines in Maputo, Mozambique: exploring emotional well-being and psychosocial stress

BackgroundApproximately 18% of Sub-Saharan Africa’s urban population relies on shared sanitation facilities, which are shared by one or more households. While there is growing recognition of sanitation’s relationship with stress and well-being – particularly among women – most research has focused on rural populations and the transition from open defecation and/or unimproved latrines to private shared sanitation. This study explores sanitation-related stressors among users of both improved and unimproved shared sanitation facilities.MethodsThis study was nested within the larger MapSan health impact trial (Trial Registration: NCT02362932). Participants were recruited from the control arm of the trial (Traditional Latrine (TL) users) and intervention arm, which received one of two improved shared sanitation facilities – Shared Latrines (SL) shared by up to 20 individuals and Community Sanitation Blocks (CSBs) shared by more than 20 individuals. Sampling was informed by a life stage perspective to reflect diversity in sanitation needs and experiences within the population. Data included 96 in-depth interviews, 7 focus group discussions, and 25 unstructured observations. Data collection and analysis followed a Grounded Theory approach, which was used to identify the key domains of sanitation-related stress among participants. A semi-structured tool was applied to all female interview transcripts to assess the frequency and severity of key stressors.ResultsParticipants reported stress due to: lack of safety; lack of privacy; disgust about the latrine condition; and collective action failure in terms of managing the latrine, often causing neighborhood conflict or unhygienic sanitation conditions. Fewer SL and CSB users reported specific stress domains and – with the exception of perceived safety – reported fewer severe stressors. The leading cause of stress reduction due to the intervention was decreased disgust followed by increased privacy and safety.ConclusionsOur data suggest that “improved”, shared facilities can reduce stress when proper maintenance and management systems are in place. Private, shared sanitation only had limited impact on users’ perceptions of safety, particularly at night, suggesting that safety concerns extend beyond the physical latrine structure. Our research demonstrates that factors including latrine location and neighborhood violence are important determinants of safety perceptions and corresponding psychosocial stress.

Effects of Community Sanitation Program on the Awareness of Environmental Sustainability in Assam, India.

Community sanitation is now an essential issue of environmental sustainability. In recently, community-led total sanitation program is going in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Ethiopia, and Kenya with the help of government and nongovernmental organizations. In this context, a community sanitation program was organized in Silchar, India, in which the students, local community members, and university professors directly and indirectly participated and gave their valuable feedback. The study aimed to evaluate the effects of community sanitation program on the awareness of environmental sustainability. In this empirical research design, 20 university students, 6 university professors, and 14 local people participated in the community sanitation and hands-on activity program organized on the roadside of Silchar Medical College & Hospital and Irongmara Market nearer to the Assam University, Silchar. The participants' responses towards the feedback cum questionnaire was analyzed by Kruskal -Wallis H test resulted significant effects of community sanitation program on the awareness of environmental sustainability.

Risk factors associated with taeniosis-cysticercosis in rural farming communities in Gauteng Province, South Africa.

The aim of this study was to determine which of the livestock management and human practices known to be risk factors associated with taeniosis-cysticercosis occur in Gauteng Province. A questionnaire survey was conducted in two regions of Gauteng Province, Germiston and Pretoria. Results revealed that almost 20% of the interviewed farmers do not have toilets, most of them let their animals roam freely during the day for grazing and scavenging, and 47% use streams as the water source for their animals. This may create an infection opportunity through ingestion of Taenia-contaminated herbage or water. Furthermore, 26% mentioned that their animals might have access to human excreta. More than 70% of farmers in the province slaughter cattle and pigs for their own consumption without inspecting meat for cysticercosis. Only a few of the interviewed farmers in both regions were aware of the taeniosis-cysticercosis complex. Backyard slaughtering, consumption of uninspected meat by the public, poor livestock management, and limited sanitation in rural communities of Gauteng Province are identified as risk factors associated with the occurrence of Taenia saginata and Taenia solium infections in the province. Taenia saginata and T. solium are considered to have a global distribution; therefore, these risk factors may be applicable globally, not just in Gauteng Province. Programs on public awareness with regard to transmission and prevention of Taenia infections as well as more detailed studies on risk factors of taeniosis-cysticercosis are recommended.

ANALISA HASIL PEMBANGUNAN MCK PLUS BERBASIS MASYARAKAT DI PROVINSI ACEH

Implementation of development of community-based sanitation infrastructure management is a new thing for the people of Aceh, especially the community in the location of community sanitation facilities will be built. Currently more than 90 percent of Acehnese people use individual waste water systems or toilets that have not been properly managed and have not equipped septic tanks so that the sludge is discharged directly into the water body. This condition leads to the spread of disease (epidemic). Septic tanks are rarely aspirated so that it becomes a successor of wastewater that then seep in the soil and contaminate it. This is the reason for the entry of Community sanitation program into a solution in the provision of infrastructure and waste water facilities using Lavatory Plus. The Community sanitation program aims to improve the quality of the environment by increasing access to community-based sanitation facilities. This study aims to identify the results of community-based Lavatory Plus development in terms of management, institutional and financing. Knowing the level of satisfaction and public interest towards community-based Lavatory Plus development. This research will be conducted in 4 (four) regencies / cities with the lowest coverage of sanitation in Aceh Province, Kab. Pidie Jaya, Kab. Aceh Tamiang, Kab. Aceh Barat Daya and Kota Subulussalam by using quantitative methods supported by qualitative analysis. Qualitative analysis wa s conducted to look at management, institutional and financing aspects. Data collection were taken through observation and interview on the Work Unit of Environmental Sanitation System Development of Aceh Province and District Public Works Office. Data analysis was done by using SWOT analysis and its analysis tool USG (Urgency, Seriousness, and Growth) and performed data processing through Biplot Method with Mini Tab software. SWOT analysis results show the success rate of Community sanitation program management is in quadrant I. The results of analysis of the level of satisfaction and public interest by using Biplot Method assisted software Mini Tab. The level of community satisfaction is 3.63 and the level of public interest is 4.4 ie the average community feels important to the management of the Community sanitation program.

Tracking user satisfaction of rural water services in northern Ghana

Abstract The article discusses the level of user satisfaction with actual handpump service levels and performance of service providers. In this paper, we outline some contradiction between actual service levels, performance of service providers and perception of water users. The findings suggest that users appeared satisfied with quantity and reliability of water facilities. In contrast, they were not satisfied with the time it takes them to access water, especially when the quantity of water diminishes. The sad irony is that tariffs are perceived affordable yet users are unwilling to pay for water. Their responses paint a picture of a payment system that is geared at reactive maintenance over preventative maintenance regime. It is worth noting here that this phenomenon raises questions on the sustainability of water systems when sound financial management is key to sustaining services. Service providers were perceived to perform better than they actually did. Perhaps this was due to lack of information and ignorance on the roles of service providers. In this regard it is imperative that the Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA), implementing partners, the district assemblies and Water and Sanitation Management Teams (WSMTs) take steps to address the technical, social, financial and institutional factors during the planning, implementation and post-construction support which invariably affect sustainability.

PENGGUNAAN TRIPIKON-S SEBAGAI ALTERNATIF PENGGUNAAN SEPTIC TANK DI DAERAH TEPIAN SUNGAI DAN RAWA

Sanitation is one of the basic services that often get less attention. Poor sanitation conditions affect the declining quality of the environment. Kelurahan 11 Ulu - Palembang is a densely populated area located on the banks of the Musi River and heavily affected by the tides of the Musi River. The purpose of this research is to identify the existing condition of community sanitation, to make prototype of sanitation facilities in the form of MCK and septic that best suits the existing condition, calculate the estimated cost of construction, and the willingness and ability of the community to build according to the prototype Based on the analysis of the survey results, the existing condition, and the wishes of the respondents, the sanitation system in each MCK is the most suitable and with the waste handling technique using the Tripikon-S installation. The S-Tripic-installation is 3 (three) septic pipes each with different sizes concentrically installed, mounted perpendicularly. Intake PipeÆ different according to the number of residents in each home. There are 4 types of prototypes that match the conditions in this environment, ie Tripikon-S without closet, Tripikon-S with closet, wooden toil with Tripikon-S, and Stone-to-Tripokon with S-Tripic. Cost Type 1 - Tripic-S Installation (No Closet) for capacity 1 - 5 soul with ÆEstimated cost of tripikon with 10”: Rp.2.567.000, for capacity 6 – 10 people with Æ pipe 14”: Rp.3.137.000, for cpacity 11 – 20 people with Æ Pipa 17” & 20”/asphalt thin: Rp.4.454.500. The costs for type 2 are : - Tripikon-S instalation (with Closet), for capacity 1 – 5 people with Æ Pipe 10”: Rp.2.732.000,for capacity 6 – 10 people with Æ Pipe 14”: Rp.3.302.000,for capacity 11 – 20 people with Æ Pipe 17” & 20”/asphalt drum: Rp.4.619.500. The costs for type 3 are - MCK wood with Tripikon-S instalation , with MCK made from wood (1,20 x 1,75 M): Rp. 2.000.000, added with Tripikon–S. For type 4 costs are - - MCK made by wood with Tripikon-S installation , added with MCK made from brick stone (2 x 1,5 M); Rp. 5.200.000, with Tripikon–S installation.Key Words : Riverfront Sanitation, Tripikon – S, WC made from brick stone, Wcmade by wood

Improving Community Sanitation and Hygiene Performance in Kerwa Sub County through the Application of Statistical Thinking

Improving Community Sanitation and Hygiene Performance in Kerwa Sub County through the Application of Statistical Thinking

ALTERNATIF TEKNOLOGI PENGOLAHAN AIR UNTUK MEMENUHI KEBUTUHAN AIR BERSIH DI DAERAH PEMUKIMAN NELAYAN Studi Kasus Perencanaan Penyediaan Air Bersih di Daerah Pedesaaan Nelayan Kab. Pasir, Kalimantan Timur

Primary water source of people in fisherman area in Kabupaten Pasir, Kalimantan Timur for daily water need generally is from surface water or deep well. Surface water is affected by water tide of sea water, so that almost all the time in a year the water quality is salty or brakish. Beside high salt concentration, deep well quality is also worst. This is caused by poor environmental sanitation of fisherman community. Rainy water use as water source alternative in problem solving for limited water drinking only provide in rainy season. Other alternative, people must find from other area where is far from their house or buy water with expensive price. To solve this critical problem is required the application of suitable water treatment technology. This water treatment technology must produce drinking water that meet technical standard and the technology is applicable, easy and cheap in operation and maintenance because it is hoped that community in that area can manage, operate and maintenance. Kata Kunci : Penduduk nelayan, penyediaan air bersih, teknologi pengolahan air bersih.

Sanitation and water supply coverage thresholds associated with active trachoma: Modeling cross-sectional data from 13 countries.

BackgroundFacial cleanliness and sanitation are postulated to reduce trachoma transmission, but there are no previous data on community-level herd protection thresholds. We characterize associations between active trachoma, access to improved sanitation facilities, and access to improved water sources for the purpose of face washing, with the aim of estimating community-level or herd protection thresholds.Methods and findingsWe used cluster-sampled Global Trachoma Mapping Project data on 884,850 children aged 1–9 years from 354,990 households in 13 countries. We employed multivariable mixed-effects modified Poisson regression models to assess the relationships between water and sanitation coverage and trachomatous inflammation—follicular (TF). We observed lower TF prevalence among those with household-level access to improved sanitation (prevalence ratio, PR = 0.87; 95%CI: 0.83–0.91), and household-level access to an improved washing water source in the residence/yard (PR = 0.81; 95%CI: 0.75–0.88). Controlling for household-level water and latrine access, we found evidence of community-level protection against TF for children living in communities with high sanitation coverage (PR80–90% = 0.87; 95%CI: 0.73–1.02; PR90–100% = 0.76; 95%CI: 0.67–0.85). Community sanitation coverage levels greater than 80% were associated with herd protection against TF (PR = 0.77; 95%CI: 0.62–0.97)—that is, lower TF in individuals whose households lacked individual sanitation but who lived in communities with high sanitation coverage. For community-level water coverage, there was no apparent threshold, although we observed lower TF among several of the higher deciles of community-level water coverage.ConclusionsOur study provides insights into the community water and sanitation coverage levels that might be required to best control trachoma. Our results suggest access to adequate water and sanitation can be important components in working towards the 2020 target of eliminating trachoma as a public health problem.

Environmental educational model for community tourism of fakcha llakta community - Ecuador

The current research aims to answering the need to systematize and give continuity to the environmental education processes developed by researcher for over a decade, to promote sustainable community tourism in the Fakcha Llakta community, Cantón Otavalo, Ecuador. The purpose was construct an environmental educational model through the historical reconstruction of indigenous community experience, based in the practice of environmental knowledge. The work is based on the qualitative paradigm with an ethnographic, interpretative focus. Its structure is divided into 3 phases: 1. Immersion of researcher in the context for environmental historic reconstruction of community experience. 2. Disclosure of community environmental education practices. 3. Conceptualisation and construction of na environmental education model for sustainable community tourism. The obtaining informations is given through the participant observation in depth interview with community key informant. The results allowed the environmental historic reconstruction of community tourist experience trhough 16 identified points from social, ecological, touristic, declaration of forest area protection, management plan, construction of touristic infrastructure, environmental sanitation, capacitation, empowerment and protected area of community. Furthermore, rebuild the environmental education processes implemented for enhance the community tourism development, immersed in local vision of wich are summarized in: cognitive recognition and its relation with nature; establishment of interinstitutional alliances; consolidation of learning and continuity learning; integration of the school with the comunity in the teaching of community tourism, the incorporation of past knowledge for the development of tourism. Finaly, na environmental education model was developed for the responsible management of the area, from the sustainable tourist practice. The model contemplates its theoretical bases and the educational, social, technological dimensions, institutional, ecological, cultural and economic law policy.

Contextual factors and motivations affecting rural community sanitation in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review.

Unsafe management of human faecal waste represents a major risk for public health, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Efforts to improve sanitation conditions are considerably sensitive to contextual specifics of natural and social environments. This review operationalises, analyses, and synthesises evidence of how contextual factors and motivations affect different sanitation outcomes with a specific focus on community approaches to rural sanitation. We operationalised contextual factors and motivations as determinants that influence sanitation conditions independently of the examined intervention. We conducted a systematic search of both peer-reviewed and grey literature with no restriction on the methods After screening the titles and abstracts of 19,198 records obtained through initial searches, we scrutinised the full content of 621 studies for relevance. While 102 of these studies qualified to be assessed for risk of bias and information content, ultimately, just 40 studies met our eligibility criteria. Of these 40 studies from 16 countries, 26 analysed specific interventions and 14 were non-interventional. None of the experimental studies reported the effects of contextual factors or motivations as operationalised in this study and only observational evidence was thus used in our review. We found that sanitation interventions are typically seen as the principal vehicles of change, the main instruments to fix 'deviant' behaviour or ensure access to infrastructure. The programmatic focus of this study on sanitation determinants that act independently of specific interventions questions this narrow understanding of sanitation dynamics. We identified 613 unique observations of quantitatively or qualitatively established relationships between certain contextual factors or motivations and 12 different types of sanitation outcomes. The sanitation determinants were classified into 77 typologically similar groups clustered into 12 broader types and descriptively characterised. We developed a graphical synthesis of evidence in the form of a network model referred to as the sanitation nexus. The sanitation nexus depicts how different groups of determinants interlink different sanitation outcomes. It provides an empirically derived conceptual model of sanitation with an aggregate structure indicating similarities and dissimilarities between sanitation outcomes with respect to how their sets of underlying determinants overlap. This study challenged the understanding of context as merely something that should be controlled for. Factors that affect targeted outcomes independently of the analysed interventions should be scrutinised and reported. This particularly applies to interventions involving complex human-environment interactions where generalisability is necessarily indirect. We presented a novel approach to comprehending the contextual factors and motivations which influence sanitation outcomes. Our approach can be analogously applied when mapping and organising underlying drivers in other areas of public and environmental health. The sanitation nexus derived in this study is designed to inform practitioners and researchers about sanitation determinants and the outcomes they influence.

A Decentralised Approach to Wastewater Management in the Urbanising Region: The Case of Jakarta, Indonesia

State-led and market-oriented approaches to sanitation development in Jakarta have favoured the construction of large-scale centralised sewerage systems. This development approach is not always suitable because the principles of modern infrastructure underlying the technological systems are not applicable in informal settlements scattered over the metropolis. Due to spatial fragmentation within the built environment, diverse socio-economic and fragile geo-ecological conditions in different settlements and the city as a whole, Jakarta needs to adopt a decentralised approach to wastewater management. This article examines governmental dynamics in Jakarta and analyses a sanitation project to introduce improved septic tanks and community sludge-hauling enterprises. The presence of (international) NGOs and civil society organisations is often vital to help communities enrich their technical knowledge of environmental problems and expand their sociopolitical networks. Nevertheless, local initiatives provide a limited response to community sanitation needs and sanitation problems beyond the neighbourhood level. This article argues that the introduction of decentralised sanitation systems requires a new form of state-led infrastructure provision, which involves the (transformative) participation of local actors. In doing so, it extends the notion of decentralised wastewater management beyond purely technological concerns.

ASSESSING STUNTING AND PREDISPOSING FACTORS AMONG CHILDREN

Objective: The present study was aimed at “assessing stunting and predisposing factors among children.”Methods: Prospective, descriptive, observational and cross-sectional study was conducted comprising children between 2 years and below 5 years age group in the city Fazilka in Punjab, India. Random, two-stage cluster sampling method was adopted. Direct observation and interview methods were used to assess physical appearance, demographic characteristics, habit of soil eating, and episodes of diarrhea (diarrheal episodes 2 weeks before investigation). Inspection method was used to assess nail beds of children to ascertain pallor.Results: Prospective, descriptive, observational and cross-sectional study was conducted comprising children between 2 years and below 5 years age group in the city Fazilka in Punjab, India. Study population was made up of total 440 children which were differentiated into 240/440, 127/440, and 73/440 children representing about 54.5%, 28.9%, and 16.6% of proportions from schools, child care, and slums, respectively. Children 55/240, 36/127, and 35/73 from schools, childcare centers, and slums suffered from stunting which amounted to about 23%, 28%, and 48% prevalence of stunting in school, childcare center, and slum children. Gender-wise characterization of study population depicted boys (260/440) and girls (180/440) with a proportion of 59% boys and 41% girls. Among the participants, about 20.5% (90/440) and 79.5% (350/440) of children belonged to illiterate and literate parents. The odds for stunting were nearly 1.6 times higher among anemic children in comparison to children in non-anemic group represented by odds 0.575 and 0.348 in former and latter groups of children with odds ratio (OR=1.65). Children (n=41) out of total children (n=80) those belonged to income (<2000 INR) per month in family, were stunted and contributed to 51% prevalence of stunting. Another group of children (n=85/360) who belonged to income (>2000 INR) per month in family, suffered from 23.6% prevalence of stunting.Conclusion: National policies should be reformed to generate employment, Maintain minimum support price for Agricultural products, Sustain food security and contribute and promote community sanitation and hygiene.

Water and Sanitation in Rural Communities: The Role of Women in the Brong Ahafo Region, Ghana

The Government of Ghana with the support of Agence Francaise de Developement (AFD) implemented the Peri Urban, Rural and Small-Town Water Supply and Sanitation Project (RSTWSSP) in the Brong Ahafo Region. The objective was to increase the rate of access to water and sanitation facilities through the provision of boreholes and encouraging Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) to rural communities, thereby improving the health status of the target population. This paper examines the Information, Education and Communication (IEC Asutifi district having thirty-two (32) communities, Sunyani West seventeen (17), Tano North eighteen (18), Tano South fourteen (14), and Sunyani Municipal fifteen (15) communities. This paper outlines the outcome of activities carried out between November 2011 to March 2012 in all communities as outlined in the project. 1.Reconstitution of WATSAN Committees. 2. Educating WATSANs on their clear roles and responsibilities and encouraging them to perform. 3.Gender perspectives of WATSANs to reconstituted in all the communities. 4. Increased women in executive positions in WATSANs.5. Representation of ethnic groups in sections of community were agreed. (if any) 6. Fund mobilization strategies were designed on community specific. 7.Caretakers and Vendors were and trained and the WATSAN handbooks were handed over to them to be used as their tool. 8.The WATSAN committees were tasked to work in the area of assisting communities to institute sustainable strategies in funding the maintenance and repairs of their water facility. 9. Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) were promoted in all beneficiary communities to eradicate open defecation and promote construction of household latrines, using the CLTS training modules. 10.The WATSAN committees were tasked to assist with their communities’ in dealing effectively with water and sanitation issues. The project provided opportunities as a deliberate policy to include women/children in all the stages of the IE&C program because they were recognized as the sole insurers of family hygiene and sanitation practices. If they suffer from various diseases or bear germs, it was likely to be transmitted to the food they cook, the clothes they touch and also to the family affecting the future generation.

Effects of sanitation on cognitive development and school absence: A systematic review.

We undertook this systematic review to explore the relationship between sanitation and learning outcomes, specifically cognitive development and absence. We searched leading databases to identify experimental and observational studies that address the effect of sanitation on our outcomes of interest. We identified 17 studies that met the review's eligibility criteria, four reporting on measures of cognitive development, 12 on school absence (with two studies reporting on school and work absence), and one study that reported on both outcomes. We assessed the risk of bias of individual studies as well as the overall strength of evidence for each outcome. Because of fundamental differences among the studies in terms of sanitation exposure and outcome measurement, pooling results via meta-analysis was deemed inappropriate so a descriptive review is presented. Studies reported that access to household sanitation was associated with measures of improved cognitive ability in children. However, collectively these studies were rated by GRADE as poor methodological quality with significant potential for confounding and bias, including publication bias. Studies on the association between household, community or school sanitation and school absence yielded mixed results. Some sanitation studies reported lower absence while others reported higher absence. Only the two randomized controlled trials reported no overall effects on absence even when combining sanitation with water supply improvements and hygiene promotion. Study quality as assessed by GRADE was again generally poor. While studies to date provide some support for positive effects from sanitation on cognitive development, the effects on school absence are uncertain. Differences in effects may be due to differences in study settings, type of sanitation exposure and most notably in outcome definitions. Further research in multiple settings using rigorous study designs and measuring intermediate outcomes such as exposure can help determine the effects of sanitation on these important learning outcomes.

Household Deficiency in Demand for Water: Do Water Source and Travel Time Matter?

Despite the massive commitment by policy makers and stakeholders to increase the supply of water to households, many households have a deficiency in their daily quantity of water required for drinking and for general use. This paper focuses on the effect of water source and travelling time on households’ deficiency in demand for water using the GLSS6 data. A Tobit regression analysis of data on 2843 households reveals that a 1 minute increase in travelling time increases household deficiency in water demand by about 8 l (49%). Also, compared to pipe in dwelling/yard/plot, all other sources of water to the households come with greater levels of water deficiency. Government policies should focus on making more resources available to the Ghana Water Company Limited and the Community Water and Sanitation Agency so as to achieve more coverage of water accessible to both urban and rural households.

Community-Level Sanitation Coverage More Strongly Associated with Child Growth and Household Drinking Water Quality than Access to a Private Toilet in Rural Mali.

Sanitation access can provide positive externalities; for example, safe disposal of feces by one household prevents disease transmission to households nearby. However, little empirical evidence exists to characterize the potential health benefits from sanitation externalities. This study investigated the effect of community sanitation coverage versus individual household sanitation access on child health and drinking water quality. Using a census of 121 villages in rural Mali, we analyzed the association of community latrine coverage (defined by a 200 m radius surrounding a household) and individual household latrine ownership with child growth and household stored water quality. Child height-for-age had a significant and positive linear relationship with community latrine coverage, while child weight-for-age and household water quality had nonlinear relationships that leveled off above 60% coverage (p < 0.01; generalized additive models). Child growth and water quality were not associated with individual household latrine ownership. The relationship between community latrine coverage and child height was strongest among households without a latrine; for these households, each 10% increase in latrine coverage was associated with a 0.031 (p-value = 0.040) increase in height-for-age z-score. In this study, the level of sanitation access of surrounding households was more important than private latrine access for protecting water quality and child health.

Sero-prevalence of Taenia spp. infections in cattle and pigs in rural farming communities in Free State and Gauteng provinces, South Africa

The aim of this study was to determine sero-prevalence of bovine and porcine cysticercosis in cattle and pigs in rural farming communities in Free State and Gauteng Provinces, Republic of South Africa. Blood samples were collected for a period of twelve months from live cattle (n=1315; 1159) and pigs (n=436; 240) and the serum extracted and stored before analysis by a monoclonal antibody based (HP10) antigen detection ELISA.Results revealed a generally high sero-prevalence and wide distribution throughout the two provinces with Free State having a higher sero-prevalence in both cattle and pigs (23% and 34%) than Gauteng province (15% and 14%). Consumption of infected meat that is either not inspected/missed at meat inspection; poor livestock management practices and limited sanitation in rural communities might have contributed to the occurrence of Taenia spp. infections in the two provinces. It is therefore, recommended that cysticercosis status of animals be established before slaughter. This would assist in ensuring that infected animals are not slaughtered for human consumption or zoonosis preventive measures are taken. Furthermore, public awareness programs on life cycles of T. saginata, T. solium and T. hydatigena and the use of more sensitive diagnostic tools are recommended as part of effective control strategies against taeniid infections.