Communities In Rural Areas Research Articles

Indigenous food security revival strategies at the village level: The gender factor implications.

This article is based on an evaluation concerning the practice of the Zunde raMambo concept (commonly referred to as Zunde) in four of Zimbabwe’s 52 districts; (Mangwe, Lupane, Guruve and Hwedza). Zunde is a social security system providing protection against food shortages to vulnerable families and is coordinated by chiefs. The Zunde concept identifies with Ndebele and Shona rural communities in Zimbabwe. Thus, this evaluation sought to determine the relevance and fulfilment of the Zunde project objectives, namely: efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability. The revived Zunde practice extends a long way in reducing food insecurity in vulnerable communities. Although the concept may be as old as the Zimbabwean culture, it had been abandoned as communities became urbanised. The Chief’s Council of Zimbabwe, in collaboration with the Nutrition Unit of the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare have rekindled it. However, to revive this indigenous knowledge practice, there is need to assess the nature of existing social and economic structures, leadership, gender roles and the availability of resources such as land, inputs and implements. This article, which is based on both qualitative and quantitative data, collected between September 2013 and March 2014, goes on to reflect on policy issues surrounding disaster risk reduction (DRR) and survival strategies used by vulnerable communities in rural areas of Zimbabwe. It recommends that the gender factor approach offers the best means possible to understand peoples’ needs and challenges as well as how these can be satisfied and resolved respectively.

STUDENT’S REAL MOVEMENT FOR BETTER INDONESIA’S FARM

Indonesia have 34 provinces and 17,504 island, five main islands or large island were Sumatera island, Java island, Borneo island, Sulawes island, and Papua island. Have as many as 34 provinces and 17,504 small island located in Indonesia. That 34 provinces stretch from Sabang to Marauke. The country is very broad and rich of Potential Natural Resources (SDA), especially in agriculture. Most of the abundant potential in isolated areas cannot be used optimally by rural area communities. Prof.Dr.Ir. Muladno, MSA, as a General Director of Livestock and Animal's Health, Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Indonesia, has been initiated a national program that will be implemented by all governments of existing farms across Indonesia. That program was Sekolah Peternakan Rakyat (SPR). SPR is an organization that facilitates the applicative, participatory, systematic, and structured learning process to realize the independent and sovereignty of the stock man by providing access of information, science, and technology, also strengthening the control of production and post-production of livestock. Sekolah Peternakan Rakyat (SPR) was initiated in 2012. Currently there were 11 of SPR sites that have been formed among the islands in Indonesia, that sites were South Sumatra (Sungai Lilin, OKI, and Banyuasin), Tasikmalaya , Madura, Jombang, Bojonegoro (Kasiman, Kedung Adem, and Temayang), South Kalimantan, and West Nusa Tenggara (Sumbawa). In those sites already starting to do the movement and under the protection of the Government as well as the role of higher education that involves the Bogor Agricultural University (IPB). In achieving the program, SPR created mentoring programs through the expert and college student. College students as agents of change have an important role in this national movement; especially the students who study agricultural science, especially Animal Science. Creative idea and real action of college student through education aims to share knowledge and learn from each other, and also share experience to rural area communities. College student have an important role in social sustainability and food security because college students are drivers and facilitator in the passage of society empowerment programs in rural area. Keywords : SPR, goverment, college student, education, social sustainability, rural area communities.

Definition of the Competence of the Social Workers for Acting in a Rural Community

The increasing need for communities and sociality is evidenced by more and more attention paid to them: on both political levels of the European Union and also on each of its member states the development of communities and the necessity to bring social services closer to local communities are emphasized. For this purpose it is necessary to reconsider the roles of social services providers, their functions and the competences required for this activity. Scientists state that the potential of social workers is not fully used for the purpose of activation, concentration and development of local communities. The purpose of the article is, based on the analysis of scientific literature, to highlight the elements of the competence of social workers for acting in a rural community. Based on the performed analysis of scientific literature, the article deals with the preconditions for formation of communities in rural areas, the specifics of social work in rural communities is analysed, the definition of the competence of the social workers for acting in a rural community is presented. The competence of a social worker for acting in a community consists of knowledge, skills and value attitudes. It is important for a social worker acting in a rural community to know potential models for solutions of community problems, the cultural context of the country community, the identity, and the strengths of the community and the specifics of facilitation process. For successful activity in a rural community the social worker shall have social skills, i.e., skills for establishment and maintenance of relationships, keeping the cultural dialog, analytical and technical skills, research performance, facilitation, activating people as well as community organization and mobilisation skills. Keywords: community development, social work in a community, social activity of a rural community, competences of a social worker. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15823/su.2015.37

Cultural resilience: The production of rural community heritage, digital archives and the role of volunteers

The following paper addresses a lacuna in the literature relating to the concept of resilience. To date, cultural activity in relation to resilient communities has been given little attention and this paper will highlight how the lens of community heritage activities and the ‘bottom-up’ role of volunteer labour can act as a catalyst for building more resilient communities in rural areas. This develops from rural areas that have strong place identities, formed through the reproduction of traditional cultural practices alongside contemporary influences. These identities are performed and constructed through a varied repertoire of knowledges, histories, and customs. Their on-going production can be central to community identity as they attempt to make visible their own accounts of history and place. Beyond this, community heritage organisations have also begun to have grounded ‘impacts’ that move away from heritage interests alone, often revitalising buildings and providing community services. This will be used to highlight how such cultural heritage activity builds collective resilience. A further trend (in the UK) has been for community heritage groups to digitise collections, due to the perceived transformational effect for community regeneration, the strengthening of community cohesion and the potential socio-economic benefits. In partnership with community heritage groups, the CURIOS (Cultural Repositories and Information Systems) project explores two case studies in rural Scotland asking how community activity, connectivity and digital archives can support interest in local heritage as well as help develop more resilient communities.

Quantitative Analysis of Amartya Sen's Theory

In this article, the authors attempted to evaluate the contribution of Information Communication Technology (ICT) for development (ICT4D) project in a context of developing country: Bangladesh. Though ICT4D is a general term referring to the application of ICT within the fields of development of a country, there are many cases where the potential benefits of ICT linked with the individual, group/community and organizational level. Considering two case studies, the authors have attempted to understand how ICT can be linked with the lives of community in rural areas of Bangladesh. They have adopted Amartya Sen's five freedoms as conceptual framework for this study. Through a quantitative perspective the authors argue that ICT projects can lead to development in general and five freedoms at particular.

Assessment of treatment efficiency of constructed wetlands in East Ukraine

Abstract The aim of the study was to evaluate the performance of 9 hybrid constructed wetlands (CWs) in the Kharkiv region, East Ukraine. Assessed CWs varied by surface areas (from 760 to 11,000 m 2 ) and treated domestic wastewater discharge (10 m 3 day −1 to 700 m 3 day −1 ). Principal macrophyte species used on these CWs were the Reed Phragmites australis (Cav.) Steud., the Wood Bulrush Scirpus sylvaticus L. and the Broad-leaved Cattail Typha latifolia L . The studied CWs demonstrated high removal efficiency on BOD 5 (82.6 ± 11%), COD (77.3 ± 9%) and suspended solids (72.1 ± 9%). The removal rates of nitrogen, orthophosphates and surfactants ranged from 9% to 52%. The overall removal efficiency of CWs was dependent mainly on inflow pollutant concentrations, design, maintenance parameters and operating conditions. Comparing to conventional domestic wastewater treatment facilities the CWs showed similar efficiency on the majority of controlled parameters. At the same time the estimated construction and operational costs of CWs were significantly lower compared to the conventional wastewater treatment facilities of similar capacities that makes CWs application feasible for small communities in rural areas. In order to improve the removal capacity of studied wetlands, operational conditions should be adjusted to the inflow concentrations and received wastewater volumes.

Climate Change Impacts in Agricultural Communities in Rural Areas of Coastal Bangladesh: A Tale of Many Stories

This paper identifies and analyses climate change impacts, their cascading consequences and the livelihood implications of these impacts on smallholder agricultural communities of coastal Bangladesh. Six physically and socio-economically vulnerable communities of south-western coastal regions were studied. Primary data was collected through focus group discussions, a seasonal calendar, and historical transect analysis. Three orders of impacts of climate change on smallholder farmers are identified and described. The first order impacts involve increasing erosion of the capacity of local communities to mitigate vulnerability to climate change impacts. This situation led to the second order impacts, which significantly transformed the agricultural landscape and production patterns. The cumulative effects of the first and second order impacts sparked the third order impacts in the form of worsening community livelihood assets and conditions. The findings of this paper can contribute to the formulation of sustainable adaptation policies and programs to manage the vulnerability of local communities to climate change impacts in the country effectively.

Entrepreneurship Training for Community in Rural Area: Motivation and Knowledge of Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship Training for Community in Rural Area: Motivation and Knowledge of Entrepreneurship

Концепция локальных сообществ сельских территорий в системе взаимодействия групп интересов, акторов региональной и местной политики

In implementation of the project state support funds are used allocated as a grant in accordance with the decree of the President of the Russian Federation on 17.01.2014 № 11-rp, and on the basis of the competition held by the Fund ISSI.
 The article discusses the basis and principles of interaction of local communities in rural areas, in collaboration with interest groups, including actors of regional and local policies. The author notes that the development of the territories, including rural, is only possible in the inclusive format of interaction between different interest groups, providing the category of “efficiency” and «fairness» and leading to the perspective of “development” and “social and economic stability”.

Community Forest Management in Nigeria: A Case of Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (Leemp) In Adamawa State

Deforestation continuous to be a wide spread problem in rural areas of developing countries. Conventional “top down” approach has proved fundamentally limited in their ability to promote the culture of forest conservation in the world over. Inco-prorating the community based forest and community based natural resources management in rural development strategies seems to be the best approach to conserve forest area. This paper provides a case of community forest management by rural communities in rural areas of Nigeria. Based on the experience of the Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP) in Adamawa State of Nigeria, this paper discussed the achievement and challenges in implementing community based forest management in the rural areas. Information used in this paper is based a preliminary study in evolving interviews with officials of the implementation agencies of LEEMP and a few participants of the projects in Adamawa state. Under LEEMP the priorities include the empowerment of local people to manage the community based forest and community based natural resources conservation in their areas. The project aim for the effective management of renewable forest resources, (vegetation), minimizing depletion of non-renewable forest resources (wild life), minimise forest pollution and its attendants negative impacts.(bush burning), as well as to decentralize the responsibity for managing forest resources. This study found that LEEMP helps to bring grass root citizen contribution to the objectives of sustainable natural resources management and community wellbeing collectively. There exist a strong link between the rural poverty and the deforestation and forest management through community empowerment did show some improvement both to the resource conservation and improvement to the livelihood of the communities. However there were many challenges encounter in the process implementationinclude non-inclusive of stake holders because of social class or due to political affiliation, while projects are not evenly distributed among communities of serious need, others are un involve and ill-informed in terms of decision and actions, and lack of conservation culture, among communities. This paper implies that effective incorporation of forest management in rural development strategies should focus more attention to collective action, which ties the community on values, cultures, and economics benefits into the ecological project, with balancing the aim of sustaining the environment and poverty alleviation.

Food system sustainability for health and well-being of Indigenous Peoples.

To describe how Indigenous Peoples understand how to enhance use of their food systems to promote sustainability, as demonstrated in several food-based interventions. Comments contributed by partners from case studies of Indigenous Peoples and their food systems attending an international meeting were implemented with public health interventions at the community level in nine countries. The Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Conference Center in Bellagio, Italy, where experiences from case studies of Indigenous Peoples were considered and then conducted in their home communities in rural areas. Leaders of the Indigenous Peoples' case studies, their communities and their academic partners. Reported strategies on how to improve use of local food systems in case study communities of Indigenous Peoples. Indigenous Peoples' reflections on their local food systems should be encouraged and acted upon to protect and promote sustainability of the cultures and ecosystems that derive their food systems. Promoting use of local traditional food biodiversity is an essential driver of food system sustainability for Indigenous Peoples, and contributes to global consciousness for protecting food biodiversity and food system sustainability more broadly. Key lessons learned, key messages and good practices for nutrition and public health practitioners and policy makers are given.

Health problems, complex life, and consanguinity among ethnic minority Muslim women in Nepal

Background. Marriage between blood relatives is common among Muslim ethnic minority population in Nepal. Albeit, the adverse effects of such a consanguineous marriage on health are controversial.Objective. To determine the prevalence, characteristics and health outcomes related to consanguineous marriage.Design. A cross-sectional survey was carried out using a cluster sampling technique to select the respondents. A total of 400 women aged 15–49 years were interviewed from September 2011 to February 2012. A structured questionnaire was administered through face-to-face meetings. Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) were estimated by a stepwise likelihood ratio method with binary logistic regression.Results. The overall prevalence of consanguinity was 36.7%. The median age at marriage and age at first childbirth was 15 and 18 years, respectively. The association of being in a consanguineous marriage among women whose husband's education level were secondary or higher was 3.35 (95% CI 1.56, 7.12) times greater than among those whose husbands were unable to read and write.Woman who have consanguineous marriage were less likely to have (AOR 0.46, 95% CI 0.26, 0.82) used contraceptive than those who have non-consanguineous marriage. Women who have consanguineous marriage were more (AOR 1.80; 95% CI 0.90, 3.61) likely to have birth defect in their children than those who have non-consanguineous marriage. The association of having a history of death after live birth among women who experienced emotional violence was 2.60 (95% CI 1.36, 5.00) and physical violence 2.15 (95% CI 1.16, 3.93) times greater than among those who did not experience violence.Conclusions. Several factors like husband's education and dowry practices are associated with consanguineous marriage. Further, these factors including consanguineous marriage and marital violence are also accountable for negative health consequences. Thus, multicomponent interventions are needed in order to improve the health condition of Nepalese Muslim community in rural area.

Distribution patterns and traits of weed communities along an urban–rural gradient under rapid urbanization in Shanghai, China

In order to better understand the effects of urbanization on weed communities, the distribution of weed communities in Shanghai, China, was systematically investigated. The diversity of weed communities and four environmental factors, including the relative light intensity, soil moisture, soil compaction and soil pH, were measured in 1375 plots along an urban–rural gradient. The species diversity indices in each area along the urban–rural gradient were compared by using a one‐way ANOVA. The weed communities were identified by using clustering methods that were based on relative dominance information. A canonical correspondence analysis was used to reveal the relationships between the species composition and the environmental factors at the community level and the Spearman's rank correlation test was used to test the relationship between the number of weed communities and each environmental factor. A total of 183 species, belonging to 41 families and 123 genera, was recorded. It was found that the species richness, Shannon–Wiener diversity index and Pielou evenness index followed a unimodal curve along the urban–rural gradient. The 1375 plots were divided into 133 weed community types. All four environmental factors significantly affected the species composition of the weed communities, but only soil compaction had significant effects on the number of weed communities. It was concluded that the diversification of habitat type and environmental change along the urban–rural gradient led to more weed communities in rural areas and fewer weed communities in urban areas. Based on the species' habitats and distribution patterns, the weeds were divided into “widespread”, “urban” and “rural”.

Age-friendly cities and environments: an investigation of the living environment of older people in England based on the MRC Cognitive Function and Ageing Study II

BackgroundWith trends in population ageing, the idea of age-friendly cities has been proposed with a focus on built and social environmental features related to active ageing. We aimed to describe the living environment of older people at small area level using data from the Cognitive Function and Ageing Study II (CFAS II), a representative sample of 7505 people aged 65 years and over in England. MethodsLiving environment was described at the community and street level. At community level, postcodes of the CFAS II participants were mapped onto 557 Lower Layer Super Output Areas and linked to environmental data in Neighbourhoods Statistics including area deprivation, crime, distance to services, land use, and green space. Street level assessment was based on an observational instrument designed for UK postcodes, the Residential Environmental Assessment Tool, by use of visual streetscape images of Google Street View. The measurement method was validated and showed acceptable intermethod reliability of physical and visual image audits. Three rural and urban categories (urban conurbation, urban city and town, rural areas) were defined by the 2011 rural–urban classification. FindingsTwo-thirds (n=4905) of the older population lived in an urban conurbation. More of the younger old (aged 65–79 years) than older old (≥80 years) lived in rural areas (1158 vs 396). In the overall population, we found moderate associations between area deprivation and crime (Spearman correlation=0·6), distance to services (−0·2), land use mix (0·5), and green space (−0·3), but they were weaker in rural areas. In addition to rural–urban and area deprivation differences, substantial variations in built and social environmental features were found at community and street levels: communities in urban conurbations generally had high crime, shorter distance to services, high heterogeneity of land use, and low proportion of green space with worse quality of street level conditions than did communities in rural areas. InterpretationOlder people in England live in a wide variety of environments with potential effect on health and wellbeing. Use of new technology can help to observe and explore variations in living environments at the small area level systematically and comprehensively; this provides opportunities to identify important environmental features related to healthy ageing and develop practical guidelines for policy planning to create age-friendly cities and environments through an evidence-based approach. FundingThere is no specific funding contributing to this study. Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study II (MRC CFAS II) was funded by the Medical Research Council (grant number G0601022).

As catadoras de mangaba no Programa de Aquisição de Alimentos - PAA: um estudo de caso em Sergipe¹

O artigo trata da experiência de um grupo de mulheres extrativistas na comercialização de frutas silvestres, no âmbito do Programa de Aquisição de Alimentos (PAA), no estado de Sergipe. O quadro de análise insere-se no debate sobre pobreza e políticas públicas para grupos específicos no espaço rural. O foco aqui são as autodenominadas "catadoras de mangaba", que assumiram uma identidade coletiva baseada no uso comum de recursos com baixo impacto ambiental e pertencem ao Movimento das Catadoras de Mangaba (MCM). Embora tenham sido recentemente reconhecidas como sujeitos de direitos específicos, vivenciam a diminuição dos recursos, sobre os quais praticam o extrativismo, e as dificuldades de comercialização resultantes da insegurança relativa ao acesso aos frutos e à sazonalidade. A pesquisa foi realizada entre 2008 e 2011 por meio de observação direta e entrevistas abertas e semiestruturadas. Os principais resultados mostram que o PAA tem influenciado no aumento da renda, do consumo e da autoestima. Houve reordenamento da rotina diária das catadoras de mangaba que, para participar do programa, relegaram atividades tradicionais a segundo plano. As regras do programa foram ressignificadas e adaptadas localmente. Constata-se o aumento da solidariedade entre as catadoras participantes, paralelamente à intensificação da concorrência pelos frutos.

Community-based scheduled screening and treatment of malaria in pregnancy for improved maternal and infant health in The Gambia, Burkina Faso and Benin: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BackgroundIn sub-Saharan Africa, malaria continues to cause over 10,000 maternal deaths and 75,000 to 200,000 infant deaths. Successful control of malaria in pregnancy could save lives of mothers and babies and is an essential part of antenatal care in endemic areas. The primary objective is to determine the protective efficacy of community-scheduled screening and treatment (CSST) using community health workers (CHW) against the primary outcome of prevalence of placental malaria. The secondary objectives are to determine the protective efficacy of CSST on maternal anaemia, maternal peripheral infection, low birth weight, selection of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) resistance markers, and on antenatal clinic (ANC) attendance and coverage of intermittent preventive treatment during pregnancy (IPTp-SP).Methods/designThis is a multi-centre cluster-randomised controlled trial involving three countries with varying malaria endemicity; low (The Gambia) versus high transmission (Burkina Faso and Benin), and varying degrees of SP resistance (high in Benin and moderate in Gambia and Burkina Faso). CHW and their related catchment population who are randomised into the intervention arm will receive specific training on community-based case management of malaria in pregnancy. All women in both study arms will be enrolled at their first ANC visits in their second trimester where they will receive their first dose of IPTp-SP. Thereafter, CHW in the intervention arm will perform scheduled monthly screening and treatment in the womens homes. At time of delivery, a placental biopsy will be collected from all women to determine placental malaria. At each contact point, filter paper and blood slides will be collected for detection of malaria infection and SP resistance markers.DiscussionTo reach successful global malaria control, there is an urgent need to access those at greatest risk of malaria infection. The project is designed to develop a low-cost intervention in pregnant women which will have an immediate impact on the malaria burden in resource-limited countries. This will be done by adding to the standard IPTp-SP delivered through the health facilities: an “extension” strategy to the communities in rural areas thus bringing health services closer to where women live.Trial registrationCurrent Controlled Trials: ISRCTN37259296 (5 July 2013), and clinicaltrials.gov: NCT01941264 (10 September 2013).

Mixing and Changes of Community in Rural Areas in Britain

Mixing and Changes of Community in Rural Areas in Britain

Community social capital and entrepreneurship: analyzing the links

This study examines the effects of community social capital on entrepreneurial intentions (EIs) in rural communities in a developing country. Entrepreneurship, in the form of business start-ups, is widely recognized as an integral component of local economic development programs designed to address poverty and limited livelihood opportunities, especially among poor and marginalized communities in rural areas in developing countries. Using a survey of 496 individuals residing in five rural communities in the Philippines, and drawing from the theory of planned behavior and social capital theory, we examine the direct and indirect effects of community social capital (CSC) on an individual’s EIs. The findings show that CSC largely influences EI by shaping an individual’s perceived self-efficacy (PSE) to engage in entrepreneurship, perceived desirability of entrepreneurship (PDE), and perceived social norms toward entrepreneurship (PSNE). High levels of PSE, PDE, and PSNE have a positive influence on an individual’s EI. These findings offer more nuanced explanations of how social capital within a community can facilitate entrepreneurship as a means of community economic development. Implications of the findings and areas for future research are discussed.

Multiple Determinants of Anuran Richness and Occurrence in an Agricultural Region in South-Eastern Brazil

In agricultural landscapes, studies that identify factors driving species richness and occupancy are important because they can guide farmers to use conservation practices that minimize species loss. In this context, anurans are threatened by habitat loss because they depend on the characteristics of both local water bodies and adjacent landscapes. We used a model selection approach to evaluate the influence of local and landscape variables in determining anuran species richness and occurrence in 40 freshwater bodies in a heavily deforested region of semideciduous Atlantic Forest in southeastern Brazil. Our aim was to develop recommendations for conservation of anuran communities in rural areas. Pond hydroperiod and area were the most important variables for explaining anuran species richness and occupancy, with greatest species richness being found in water bodies with intermediate hydroperiod and area. Other important variables that reflected individual species occupancies were the number of vegetation types and pond isolation. In addition, recent studies evidenced that water bodies near forest fragments have higher anuran abundance or diversity. In conclusion, we suggest the maintenance of semi-permanent ponds, isolated from large rivers or reservoirs and near forest fragments, as an effective strategy to conserve anuran fauna in agricultural landscapes of southeastern Brazil. Brazilian government requires the maintenance of forests as legal reserve in each farm, and farmers need to maintain ponds as drinking water for cattle or crop irrigation. For this reason, the guidelines suggested in the present study can be easily adopted, without additional costs to rural productivity.

Improvement of rural access roads in developing countries with initiative for self-reliance of communities

This study presents an approach to help alleviate poverty from a geotechnical engineering viewpoint. In order to improve accessibility of rural access roads to communities in rural areas of developing countries, a method to reinforce the base course with “do-nou”, a Japanese term for soil bag, has been developed. With this method, local available resources can be mobilized and the community can be involved. The main challenges are to build the base course without the necessity for qualified base course material or compaction equipment to bear the traffic load. The applicability of the available bags in developing countries to the base course was confirmed through tensile strength tests. The effectiveness of the reinforcement of “do-nou” was evaluated through a series of full-size model driving tests. The base course, built with “do-nou” and compacted manually, was able to reduce the settlement of the surface to 33% of that built with the conventional method, just by the spreading of gravel subjected to the traffic load. The technical transfer of reinforcement with “do-nou” to communities in developing countries will make it possible for the members of the communities themselves to work on rural access roads to improve trafficability. The applicability and limitations of road repair with “do-nou” were confirmed through a review of demonstrations and practices in Kenya. Typical sections with flat terrain, sags and gentle slopes, where trafficability was lost during the rainy seasons, were found to be effectively repairable with “do-nou”. Sections with steep slopes, however, are beyond the scope of “do-nou”. From an assessment of the impact after the technical transfer in Kenya, it was found that the application of “do-nou” motivates and empowers the community to initiate its own development. This earth reinforcement technology can be applied to the skills utilized by the communities in developing countries to improve the trafficability of rural access roads by considering the conditions of rural areas. Based on this technology, an approach is proposed to promote the concept of community involvement in repairing rural access roads and to enable the members of communities to improve the conditions of the roads by themselves at a low cost.