Community Forest Associations Research Articles

Influence of Participatory Project Initiation on Sustainable Forest Management in Saboti, Trans-Nzoia County, Kenya

Forestry related projects fail due to the lack of participation by the community during the initiation stage. This further leads to unsustainable management of forests. This study was undertaken to examine how participatory project initiation influences sustainable forest management in Saboti forest in Trans-Nzoia County, Kenya. Participatory Development Theory guided this study. The explanatory research design was adopted. The target population was 2600 community forest association (CFA) members and 15 Kenya Forest Officers. Census sampling was used in the sampling of Kenya forest Officers and simple random sampling to select community forest management members. The sample size was 347 community forest management members and 15 Kenya forest Officers. Data were collected using questionnaires and through interview. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Presentation of findings was carried out using tables. There was a significant influence of participatory project initiation on sustainable forest management (SFM) (r = 0.700, p=0.00). This implies that an increase in participatory project initiation improved sustainable forest management in Saboti. Participatory project initiation had a significant influence on sustainable forest management. The community participation in initiation had a significant influence on sustainable forest management. There is need for forest management to involve the community members during the initiation stage of the projects in order to achieve sustainable forest management.

Power dynamics in forest governance decentralization: the case of Kenya

The debate on whether governments are willing to translate decentralization theory into practice given the importance of natural resources as a source of livelihoods for local populations and a source of revenue generation for governments continue to yield varying outcomes. This study examines the decentralization process within a multidimensional framework of power with and power over, and systematically assesses outcomes of the exercise of power from both perspectives and their interrelations and implications on forest governance. In what some have lauded as an excellent attempt by the Kenyan government to transfer management of forests to community forest associations (CFAs), others have termed the process as a mere illusion. The results indicate that decentralization efforts offer a high transformational potential when power is exercised with others (co-operation and learning), rather than when exercised over others (coercion and manipulation). However, both power over and power with are not mutually exclusive in practice. To achieve an effective decentralized forest governance system, appropriate behavioural change among forest stakeholders is paramount. The challenge is how to define and transfer adequate and meaningful power to the local level actors and institutions to drive the required behavioural change.

Determinants of successful collective management of forest resources: Evidence from Kenyan Community Forest Associations

The collective participation of local communities in the management and utilization of forest resources is now widely accepted as a possible solution to the failure of centralized, top-down approaches to forest conservation. Under such initiatives, communities in Kenya have organized themselves into Community Forest Associations (CFAs). Despite the proliferation of CFAs, forest conservation outcomes have been mixed. Little is known about the factors that influence the success of collective action in forest conservation. Using data from 518 households and 22 CFAs within the Mau forest conservancy, this study employed regression techniques to analyze factors that influence household participation in CFA activities. Further, the study investigated the determinants of successful collective action, as measured by the percentage of forest cover and the number of reported cases of vandalism of forest resources. The relationship between household participation and success of collective action was also established. Collective action is more successful where household participation is high, the associations are initiated by the communities themselves, the associations interact frequently with government departments, and the forest cover is low, among other factors. The factors that influence the level of household participation are also identified.

Enhancing equity in participatory forest management through forest management agreements: the case of Gathiuru and Karima forests in Kenya

Kenya is keen on realizing equity between the state and local communities participating in sustainable forest management. Hence, prominence is accorded to Forest Management Agreements (FMAs) under the Participatory Forest Management (PFM) framework. However, there is a scarcity of equity lessons from FMAs implemented so far by the state and Community Forest Associations (CFAs). This paper addresses this gap by exploring two FMAs for procedural and distributive equity effects by comparing the processes of recognition, income, and cost-sharing as well as challenges experienced by the state and CFAs to determine whether FMA implementation was yielding equity outcomes or not. Using literature review and 19 key informant interviews, results from Gathiuru and Karima forests substantiate that FMA is a reasonably robust, multi-objective-win-win tool that promotes equity in PFM. However, the implementation process has been slow. There is a need for more capacity building of CFA members, establishing an inventory-based NTFPs utilization system, and complementing the current PFM framework with explicit provisions for Corporate Social Responsibility.

Welfare and forest cover impacts of incentive based conservation: Evidence from Kenyan community forest associations

This paper examines whether offering landless forest-adjacent communities options to grow appropriate food crops inside forest reserves during early stages of reforestation programmes increases incomes of low-income households and conserve forests. We consider the forest cover and household welfare impacts of a unique incentive scheme in Kenya known as the Plantation Establishment and Livelihood Improvement Scheme (PELIS). PELIS seeks to deepen community participation in forestry, and improve the livelihoods of adjacent communities. Using cross sectional data collected from 22 Community Forest Associations and 406 households, we use propensity score matching methods to evaluate the mean impact of the scheme on forest cover and household welfare. We also assess the heterogeneous impacts of the scheme on household welfare using an endogenous quantile treatment effects model. The results show that on average, PELIS has a significant and positive impact on the welfare of participating households (estimated between 15.09% and 28.14%) and on forest cover (between 5.53% and 7.94%). However, the scheme cannot be defended on equity grounds as it has inequitable distributional impacts on household welfare. The scheme raises welfare of groups other than the poorest and marginalized sections of the community. Our observations from the field blame elite capture for this outcome.

Influence of Community Forest Association Activities on Dryland Resources Management: Case of Kibwezi Forest in Kenya

Gazetted forests in Kenya are owned and managed by the government through Kenya Forest Service. Other stakeholders including communities formally participate in forest management through Participatory Forest Management, concessions and leasehold. In each management regime the forest has to be well managed and the community continue accessing forest products. The aim of this paper was to investigate whether Community Forest Association activities lead to improved forest cover in a leased forest. The study adopted a descriptive survey design where both qualitative data and satellite data was collected. A sample size of 139 individuals was issued with questionnaires and 5 key informants were interviewed. Satellite imagery was used to quantify changes and trends in forest cover of Kibwezi forest for ten years. Findings of the study established that infrastructural development had a great effect on destruction of forest cover in Kibwezi forest. There was significance relationship between community participation and improvement of forest since Chi square results were (χ² =27.631, df=9, 0.001). This research recommends that there should be deliberate action by stakeholders to give community forest association incentives to operate optimally. The improvement of the forest was partially contributed by presence of community forest association during inception of project but later David Sheldrick Trust which fenced the forest.

Forest conservation activities in Mount Brackett (Sacred Forest) in South West Mau forest, Kenya.

The study investigated forest conservation activities in Mt. Bracket (sacred forest) in South West Mau Forest. South West Mau Forest if found within central coordinates of 35° 38. 88ˈE and 0° 33. 00ˈS and an altitude of 1800 – 3000 m above sea level. Mt. Brackett was purposively chosen for study due to its religious and cultural benefits. Three transects were laid at 0-2 Km, 2-5 Km and over 5 Km parallel to the edge of forest and one study site selected from each transect. 225 household questionnaires were administered during the data collection by randomly identifying the first household (HH) in each study site and there after systematically selecting a HH after every third HH at an approximate distance of 300 m. The data was analyzed using SPSS Version 12 package at significant test levels of P < 0.05. Sensitization on forest conservation (57.3%), research and policing (59.7%) and tree planting (64.0%) were the main forest conservation activities in the area. Chi-square test demonstrated that there was no significant association (P > 0.05) between forest conservation activities in Mt. Brackett forest and the study sites in all the transects. The paper recommends that households adjacent to forests need to be sensitized and educated on forest conservation especially through Community Forest Associations (CFAs).

MIKOKO: A Data Sharing Platform On Kenyan Mangrove Species

The Mangrove ecosystem offers a range of benefits and opportunities for local and national economic development such as fisheries, shoreline stability, and resource sustainability hence they should be protected and conserved. In Kenya Mangroves were declared government reserve forests by the Proclamation No. 44 of 30th April 1932, and later by Legal Notice No. 174 of 20th May 1964. Under this “Gazette Notification for Mangrove Forests in Kenya” all land between high water and low water marks (ordinary spring tides) are described as mangrove areas. These forests cover about 61,279ha representing approximately 3% of the natural forest cover or less than 1% of the national land area. Mangrove forests are found in tidal estuaries, creeks, and protected bays along the 536 km long Kenyan coastline that extends from the Kenya-Tanzania border in the south to the Kenya-Somalia border in the north; between latitudes 1°40΄S and 4°25΄S and longitudes 41°34΄E and 39°17΄E. Mikoko (Mangrove in Swahili) is the first project specifically developed for mangrove areas in Kenya. Driven by the Kenya Forest Service, the project takes into account the recommendations of the National Mangrove Ecosystem Management Plan 2017-2027. For effective management of mangroves in the country, the Plan is organised around six programmes including; forest conservation and utilization; fisheries development and management; community; tourism development; research and education; and human resource and operations. These programmes prescribe measures for rehabilitation, conservation, and sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems in Kenya. Implementations of this Plan will be led by Kenya Forest Service (KFS); but will also include other key actors such as Kenya Wildlife Service, State Department of Fisheries, Research Institutions, Academia and Community Forest Associations through a specially constituted National Mangrove Advisory Committee. The project is for a 2-year period during which it shall develop an effective system for management of mangrove resources in Kenya. This will be done through the development of management prescriptions, skills improvement and provision of adequate infrastructure as recommended by the mangrove plan. Biodiversity information on mangroves, covering species descriptions and distribution, is essential for understanding the ecology and distribution of this endangered ecosystem and its management. Nowadays, very few is done in that domain. If the mangroves location are well know, it's not the case regarding the species distribution. Citizen science is a way to address this important issue. MIKOKO, a French FSPI funded project, is focused on Kenya to develop species information systems on mangrove species. Mikoko aims to assimilate knowledge through its participatory portal to strengthen a science and technology network of stakeholders such as scientists and parataxonomists in the African region. The portal platform will contain a Citizen Science module, a graphic driven species identification module, a species pages module conforming to Species Profile Model and a spatial module. Subscribing to open data paradigm, all the data on the portal will be covered by Creative Commons license framework. Mobile applications for identifying 60 plant species and contributing to citizen science module will be deployed. The oral presentation will expose the portal features and related apps seeking participation from the environmentalists from the African region.

Fire Management in Mount Kenya: A Case Study of Gathiuru Forest Station

This paper proposes an Integrated Fire Management (IFM) framework that can be used to support communities and resource managers in finding effective and efficient approaches to prevent damaging fires, as well as to maintain desirable fire regimes in Kenya. Designing and implementing an IFM approach in Kenya calls for a systematic understanding of the various uses of fire and the underlying perceptions and traditional ecological knowledge of the local people. The proposed IFM framework allows different stakeholders to evaluate the risks posed by fires and balance them with their beneficial ecological and economic effects making it easier for them to develop effective fire management approaches. A case study of the proposed IFM framework was conducted in Gathiuru Forest, which that is part of the larger Mt. Kenya Forest Ecosystem. Focus group discussions were held with key resource persons, primary and secondary data on socio-economic activities was studied, fire and weather records were analysed and the current fire management plans were consulted. Questionnaires were used to assess how the IFM is implemented in the Gathiuru Forest Station. The results show that the proposed IFM framework is scalable and can be applied in places with fire-dependent ecosystems as well as in places with fire-sensitive ecosystems in Kenya. The effectiveness of the proposed IFM framework depends on the active participation, formulation and implementation of the IFM activities by the main stakeholder groups (Kenya Forest Service (KFS), Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), and the Community Forest Associations (CFA). The proposed IFM framework helps in implementing cost-effective approaches to prevent damaging fires and maintain desirable fire regimes in Kenya.

Relations of power driving tropical deforestation: a case study from the Mau Forest (Kenya)

The paper investigates the deforestation process in the Mau Forest (Kenya), highlighting the actors involved and the underlying relations of power. The proximate causes of the deforestation are three: agriculture, wood production and infrastructures. In this context of pressure on natural resources, local communities have developed different projects to reduce deforestation and promote alternative development strategies, especially through the Community Forest Associations (CFAs). These dynamics show that deforestation is a complex issue whose solutions lie primarily outside the forest itself and that it should be tackled with suitable policies on crucial issues such as land, agriculture, infrastructure and indigenous peoples.

High community expectation against low societal transformation through community based income generating activities. Analysis of Participatory forest management in Kenya 2005-2013

The implementation of the participatory forest management (PFM) starting 2005 was meant to help in forest management and also assist the forest adjacent communities to benefit from these forest based resources through agreement with Kenya forest Service (KFS). Analysis of socio-economic reports and associated participatory forest management plan (PFMPs) undertaken between 2005 and 2013, indicate sizeable income generating projects (IGP) as part of social function of forest such as recreation have not been realised by community forest association (CFA). It is notable that several facilitating factors such as proximity to major urban areas and significant tourism circuits, necessary for development of these sites have had no impact. In some sites development of business plan did not manage to take IGP to the desired level. This failure leaves the CFA in the same status prior to the implementation of PFM in spite of huge resources invested in mapping and detailing resources potential. The CFA stakeholder’s composition, a structural weakness that failures to include more able and literate local stakeholders (business and professionals) is a major obstacle to enabling exploitation of forest ecosystems potential, thereby remaining localised and a closed unit. Thus, there is need for paradigm shift in terms CFA empowerment for exploitation of social functions of forest resources

What rights and benefits? The implementation of participatory forest management in Kenya: The case of Eastern Mau Forest Reserve

ABSTRACTThe study espoused the access analytical framework to investigate how introduction of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) in Kenya has changed the various actors’ ability to benefit from the forest resources of Eastern Mau Forest Reserve. Data collected through key informant interviews, and a household survey showed that implementation of PFM has triggered new income opportunities for forest adjacent communities in seedling production and beekeeping. However, PFM bestowed no real decision-making powers to the established Community Forest Associations (CFAs) over important forest resources such as timber and firewood. Members of the local communities and other actors have continued to access these resources through various structural and relational means, in the same way as before the introduction of PFM. Further, it is documented that PFM has introduced additional burdens on the local communities, especially the poorest households, as a result of increased enforcement of rules. Based on these findings, it is suggested that the PFM policy in Kenya, in its current form, is unlikely to realize its dual objectives of forest conservation and livelihood enhancement. To attain them would require a further devolution of rights to the CFAs.

Implementation of Participatory Forest Management in Kenya: a case study of Karima Forest

SUMMARY This paper analyzes the distribution of powers before and after the implementation of participatory forest management (PFM) in Kenya. The paper is a case study of the Karima forest in the Central Highlands of Kenya. The study relies primarily on 34 semi-structured interviews with key actors involved in and affected by the PFM. The paper finds that the established Community Forest Association (CFA) has not been entrusted with significant powers; all powers and benefits remain with the local authority (county government). Moreover, the paper documents that the CFA offers a poor representation of the forest communities and weak downward accountability relations. Finally, it illustrates a planning process, which has weaknesses in participation and inclusiveness. Consequently, the paper suggests three areas for PFM policy reform in Kenya: (i) the role (powers) and function of CFAs; (ii) benefit sharing; and (iii) ways to make the PFM process more participatory and inclusive.

Forest-Cover Change and Participatory Forest Management of the Lembus Forest, Kenya

Forests are a vital resource supporting the livelihoods of rural communities in Kenya. In spite of this significant role, human activities have put increased pressure on this resource, leading to continued forest-cover decline. To address forest-cover decline, the Kenyan government introduced Participatory Forest Management (PFM) through its Forest Department in the early 2000s, enabling local communities to form and register Community Forest Associations (CFAs). This study was conducted to examine the impacts of the PFM approach on the Lembus Forest-cover change. Three Landsat satellite images (Landsat 5 TM acquired on 9 January 1985; Landsat 7 ETM+ acquired on 1 February 2002; and Landsat 8 OLI (Operational Land Imager) acquired on 1 March 2015) were used to analyse forest-cover change in the 1st period (1985–2002) and the 2nd period (2002–2015). In analysing the contribution of CFAs in conservation and management of the Lembus Forest, questionnaire sheets were distributed randomly to various residents living adjacent to the Lembus Forest; 327 valid responses were obtained from heads of households. The results of the land-cover change show a decrease in the percentage of forest-cover decline from 11.2%, registered in the 1st period, to 8.2% in the 2nd period. This led to the decrease of the annual rate of the forest-cover decline from 0.4 in the 1st period to 0.2 in the 2nd period. Three CFAs operate in this area, and 75% of the respondents participated in tree planting and 16% participated in tree pruning. This type of community participation is thought to most likely be the cause of the decline of the recent decreasing annual rate of forest-cover loss in the study area. Conversely, we found out that important initiatives, such as a forest patrol, had not been implemented due to lack of funding, and that CFAs and Kenya Forest Service had not yet signed any management agreement.

Factors influencing level of participation of community forest associations in management forests in Kenya

ABSTRACTIn Kenya, a Participatory Forest Management (PFM) approach was adopted through formation of Community Forest Associations (CFA) to improve forest cover and their livelihoods as provided for in the Forest Act 2005. The main objective of this study was to determine the factors influencing the level of CFA members’ participation in PFM activities in selected forests in Kenya. The study was undertaken on the Ontukigo and Ngare Ndare CFAs involved in participatory management of the Ontulili and Ngare Ndare forests respectively, located in the Eastern Conservancy, Buuri Sub County (Meru County) in Kenya. Semi structured questionnaires were administered to randomly selected 80 CFA and 80 Non CFA members. Participatory Rural Appraisal tools, including focused group discussions and community wealth characterization, were used to collect qualitative data for precise description of the quantitative data. The level of participation of CFA members in PFM activities was positively and significantly influenced by the level of perceived PFM benefits (χ2 = 38.73, P=0.05); range of farm size (χ2=12.72, P=0.05); and nature of the head-of-household (χ2 =29.99, P=0.001). As such, benefits gained from the forest play an important role as incentives to community participation in PFM.

Implementing REDD + at the national level: Stakeholder engagement and policy coherences between REDD + rules and Kenya's sectoral policies

Effective implementation of rules on reduced emission from avoided deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) depends on the compatibility between these rules and existing sectoral policies associated with forests. This paper applies content analysis of policy documents, semi-structured interviews and case study analysis to examine the interplay between REDD+ rules and Kenyan sectorial policies and local socioeconomic settings. Results reveal that the preparation of national REDD+ strategies in Kenya is usefully coordinated by the Kenyan forestry sector drawing on the sector's policy mandate and past experiences in forest management. This sectoral mainstreaming however degenerates into negative vertical policy interplay caused by poor consultations with key sectors outside the forestry sector e.g. lands and agriculture and is further exacerbated by sectoral competition for climate finance. Analysis of REDD+ coherences with sectoral policies revealed that forest polices on reforestation and decentralisation are coherent with REDD+ rules (horizontal interplay) but this coherence is impeded by limited implementation of these measures e.g. poor support and coordination of Community Forest Associations. Lack of coherence was mainly observed between REDD+ rules and resettlement and agricultural mechanisation policies prescribed in the lands and agriculture policies. Agricultural mechanisation and resettlement policies are synonymous with deforestation especially through illegal and politically motivated agricultural or settlement expansions into Kenya's forest areas. At the local level, REDD+ showed potential to positively influence local livelihoods but the aforementioned national institutional gaps and strict carbon standards and prices lead to negative trade-offs between carbon sequestration and alternative livelihoods. The paper advocates for strong multi-stakeholder consultative mechanism so that both Kenyan policy and socioeconomic settings can support effective REDD+ implementation.

Community forestry in British Columbia: Policy progression and public participation

It is 17 years since the British Columbia Ministry of Forests instituted the Jobs and Timber Accord of 1997, which established British Columbia's (BC) Community Forest Pilot Program and formally introduced Community Forest Agreements into the provincial forest policy framework. For this special issue we present the results of a census of all active members of the BC Community Forest Association, evaluating the program using the method demonstrated by Maryudi et al. (2012) where evaluation is guided by the original aims of the policy; in this case the Community Forestry Initiative of BC. We sought the Community Forest Organisations' views on the strengths and limitations of the initiative, whether they were equipped to achieve the aims expected of the policy, and the degree to which the policy aims were their priorities. We found that community forests in BC assess themselves as having been broadly successful in terms of policy aims of public participation and environmental stewardship of forests, but that the policy has not enabled economic diversification. Corroborating other studies we report that community forests found that encouraging participation requires sustained effort, that diversifying from conventional forestry is desired but not usually achievable and that motivations for involvement in community forests are diverse.

Illusions of empowerment? Questioning policy and practice of community forestry in Kenya

The extent to which community forestry (CF) contributes to empowerment of local communities remains hotly contested. We develop a unified theory of empowerment at the intersection of asset-based agency and institution-based opportunity and apply it to examine the extent to which the implementation of CF has led to local empowerment. Our empirical data are drawn from review of national level policies and a field study of Ngare Ndare Community Forest Association (CFA) in Kenya. We investigated what types of powers were transferred to the local level, how representative the local institution was of the local community, and how its formation and composition affected the empowerment of socially and economically differentiated groups, with competing claims over the forest resource. We found that national forest policies and actors transferred minimal powers that enabled local communities to execute forest protection and conservation roles, while maintaining legislative powers and control of economic benefits centrally; and, that representation within the CFA was highly skewed in favor of small and already powerful local elites. We discuss the findings in the light of the literature on empowerment to develop insights about how to more effectively manage processes to empower local communities through appropriately representative institutions.

Determinants of Household Decision to Join Community Forest Associations: A Case Study of Kenya

Forests contribute significantly to the livelihoods of forest adjacent communities. Under the Kenya's new Forest Act (2005), community participation in forest conservation is provided for through formation of Community Forest Associations (CFAs). This study focused on Ontukigo and Ngare Ndare CFAs involved in participatory management of Ontulili and Ngare Ndare forests in North Central Kenya. It aimed at identifying household factors associated with decision to participate in PFM and the differences between CFA and non-CFA members in their participation in forest conservation activities. Semi structured questionnaires were administered to randomly selected 80 CFA and 80 non-CFA members. Factors influencing household decision to join CFA included household size (, ), age (, ), number of cows (, ) and sheep (, ) owned by CFA (6.6) and non-CFA (4.2), farm size (, ) and forms of land tenure. Other factors included distance of homestead from forest (, ), sources of fodder (, ), access to forest products (, ), crop land (, ), and awareness of Forest Act 2005 (, ). Participation in forest conservation was positively influenced by CFA membership (, ). Majority of CFA members (80%) participated highly in forest patrol, fire control, tree nurseries, and tree planting activities.

Communities, property rights and forest decentralisation in Kenya: Early lessons from participatory forestry management

The introduction of participatory forestry management (PFM) in Kenya has led to the formation of community forest associations (CFAs). Data collected from 12 forests over a decade indicate that most associations are confederating to manage shared forests through the Forests Act of 2005. Emerging findings indicate that associations are responsible for diverse management activities in forest protection, monitoring, and management, yet access to decision-making, revenue streams, and overall resource control rights are vested in the Kenya Forestry Service. Still, this is an improvement as CFAs perform most governance functions autonomously, including the crafting of resource harvesting rules, the choice of leadership, and conflict resolution. In order to balance community incentives with the burdens and responsibilities they bear, rights to revenue streams generated from forest resources must be shared with communities to ensure continued commitment to the PFM process. Furthermore, the viability of CFAs is threatened by power struggles, leadership wrangles, and the splintering of groups. Negotiation support to moderate conflicting interests, and strengthen internal conflict resolution and governance is necessary.