Food Insecurity In Communities Research Articles

IMPACT OF HUMANITARIAN AID ON FOOD SECURITY IN RURAL COMMUNITIES IN ZIMBABWE: THE CASE OF WARD 14 AND 15 OF BUHERA DISTRICT

The study was assessing the impact of humanitarian aid on food security in the rural communities in Zimbabwe. The Case of ward 14 and 15 of Buhera District. The study was conducted to assess how humanitarian aid contribute or address food access, availability and stability in Zimbabwe. Humanitarian aid is being used as a panacea to alleviate hunger to the food insecure communities. It examined whether the humanitarian aid given to the communities is being used for food security purposes or not. The research used a qualitative approach to explore the topic under study. Questionnaires, focus group discussion and interviews were used to gather data from the respondents. On sampling, purposive sampling method was used to obtain data from participants who were humanitarian aid beneficiaries, humanitarian aid workers and key informants from council. The major findings of the study revealed that the use of humanitarian aid in form of food alone to address food insecurity is just a pipedream. No humanitarian aid beneficiary confirms that he/she was food secure. Humanitarian aid is contributing to food access in the short term but in the long or medium term it is not. Though the use of humanitarian aid accompanied with developmental programs and resilient programs, the community and humanitarian aid workers admitted that it has potential in addressing food insecurity. The study also noted that there are challenges associated with using humanitarian aid to address food insecurity in rural communities. The challenges are emanating from the community's perceptions and some from the perceptions of the donors. To mention some of the challenges are dependency syndrome, corruption, social problems like conflicts, and no initiatives in the communities. Major recommendations are that humanitarian organizations should fund irrigation schemes to enhance food availability, they should be involved in capacity building, they should invest in research, monitoring and evaluating their projects so that they will bring the aid which is relevant to the place and time. They should come up with programs which are sustainable so that the humanitarian aid addresses food insecurity in rural communities.

Community food insecurity predicts child maltreatment report rates across Illinois zip codes, 2011–2018

PurposeWe examined how longitudinal changes and inter-community differences of food insecurity rates were associated with child maltreatment report (CMR) rates at the zip code level. We assessed these associations overall, by urbanicity, and within subgroups of age, sex, and maltreatment type. MethodsWe used Illinois statewide zip code-level data from 2011 to 2018. We measured CMR rates based on Illinois child protective services records and food insecurity rates from Feeding America's Map the Meal Gap. We conducted spatial linear modeling to account for spatial dependence with controls for various socioeconomic, demographic, care burden, and instability conditions of communities. ResultsBoth longitudinal changes and inter-community differences of food insecurity rates were significantly associated with increased CMR rates overall and within all subgroups. These associations were significant among all large urban, small urban, and rural areas, while longitudinal changes of food insecurity rates had significantly stronger associations among small urban areas compared with other areas. ConclusionsCommunities experiencing higher food insecurity had higher CMR rates. Increases in food insecurity over time were associated with increases in CMR rates. These associations were reproduced within subgroups of child age, sex, maltreatment type, and urbanicity. Attention and collaborative efforts are warranted for high food insecure communities.

Factors Influencing Capacity and Readiness to Implement Healthy Eating Interventions in Food Pantries Through SNAP-Ed Programming

ObjectivesFood pantries provide free food to households, including those receiving Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), thereby buffering food insecurity in communities. The SNAP-Ed program identified food pantries as a targeted setting for policy, system, and environmental (PSE) changes to promote healthy eating. This study sought to identify factors influencing capacity and readiness to implement healthy eating PSE interventions in food pantries. MethodsWe conducted qualitative interviews with 26 residents and 12 SNAP-Ed staff from rural and urban counties in Ohio to identify themes and indicators related to community readiness and organizational and practitioner capacity to implement healthy eating PSEs in food pantries. Themes and related indicators were generated based on inductive and deductive coding of interview transcripts. Eleven food pantry and nutrition experts prioritized and weighted themes and indicators during a virtual consensus conference. ResultsFive themes emerged, and expert-derived weights (scaled low, 0 to high, 1) reflect the perceived importance of each to implementation of healthy eating PSE interventions in food pantries; (1) food pantry capacity and logistics [0.253], (2) networks & relationships [0.228], (3) community nutrition practitioner capacity [0.212], (4) food pantry user characteristics [0.156], and (5) stigma and stereotypes [0.1.52]. Overall, 17 indicators were identified across these themes. ConclusionsFood pantries are unique settings for implementing healthy eating PSE interventions, thus successful and sustained PSE change will require a tailored approach that considers food pantries capacity, needs and opportunities within the community, and capacity of community nutrition practitioners, including SNAP-Ed. The themes and indicators identified through this study will be incorporated into an online assessment tool to support tailored approaches that meet communities where they are. Funding SourcesFinancial support for this work was provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program – Education (SNAP-Ed).

The Potential Impact of Food Insecurity in an Urban Trauma Population.

Food insecurity (FI) has been defined as a lack of consistent access to enough food for a healthy active lifestyle. As of 12.7% of the United States are suffering from FI, which has been correlated with increased hospital costs and poorer health outcomes. Currently, limited data exists examining the relationship between trauma populations and FI despite both having similar root causes. We sought to determine this and validate a screening tool for FI in this population. A cross-sectional survey study of trauma patients was conducted at a level 1 trauma center in Atlanta, Georgia. Survey questions included the first two items of the Core Food Security Module. Zip codes were used to determine FI, defined by the USDA Food Access Research and compared to individual participant survey responses. Binary classification test metrics were calculated to validate the two items as a screening tool in this population. The cohort included 136 patients, of which the majority were black (60.3%) and male (60.3%). Thirty-one respondents affirmed food security (22.8%) despite over half (51.5%) living in a food insecure community. The sensitivity and specificity for this screening to predict FI were 25 and 80%, respectively. Although the specificity is high, this screening tool has a low sensitivity, accuracy, NPV, and PPV to determine food insecurity in this population. Community-level statistics suggests that food insecurity is a significant public problem amongst trauma patients. Prevention efforts should, therefore, aim to address both issues simultaneously.

Community Food Insecurity and Child Maltreatment Reports: County-Level Analysis of U.S. National Data From 2009 to 2018.

Current literature suggests that food insecurity increases child maltreatment risk. Yet, existing evidence is limited to individual-level associations among low-income, high-risk populations based on local, mostly urban data. This study aims to generalize prior findings to community-level associations in general populations, using national data including all urban-rural areas. We examined, for the first time, if food insecurity rates increase child maltreatment report (CMR) rates at the county level after controlling for potential confounders. We examined both within-community longitudinal changes (i.e., within-effects) and inter-community differences (i.e., between-effects) of food insecurity rates and their associations with CMR rates. We also examined differences by age, sex, race/ethnicity, maltreatment type, and urbanicity. We constructed longitudinal county-level data by linking multiple national databases, including all substantiated and unsubstantiated CMR records, the Map the Meal Gap's community food insecurity estimates, and Census data. The data covered over 96% of U.S. counties from 2009 to 2018. For analysis, we used within-between random effects models. Regarding between-effects, we found that in inter-community comparisons, higher food insecurity rates were significantly associated with increased CMR rates. This association was consistent by age, sex, maltreatment type, and urbanicity. For within-effects, we found that the association between longitudinal changes of food insecurity rates and CMR rates significantly differed by urbanicity. Specifically, longitudinal increases of food insecurity rates significantly increased CMR rates among large urban counties, but not among small urban and rural counties. Study findings highlight the importance of conducting further research to better understand the mechanisms through which food insecurity impact child maltreatment at both individual and community levels. Our community-level findings from general populations especially have significant implications for community-based programs and large-scale policies to achieve population-level impact on child well-being.

The association between food insecurity and gun violence in a major metropolitan city.

Food insecurity (FI) is an important social determinant of health that is associated with many forms of violence. We hypothesized that FI would be associated with gun violence. Firearm injury data was collected from 2016 to 2020 (n = 3115) at a single institution that serves as the only Level I trauma center in a major southern US city. The data were linked with Map the Meal Gap data, a publicly available data set, which estimates rates of county-level FI based on state-level FI and social determinants, including unemployment, poverty, disability, and other factors. Regression analysis was utilized to examine the relationship between FI with rates of overall gun trauma and odds of gun-related violence. Food insecurity by county of patient residence was categorized by rates less than the national average of 11.5% (low), between the national and state average (16.5%) (moderate), and greater than the state average (high). Out of state residents were excluded from the analyses. Of the 3,115 patients with firearm injuries identified, 138 (4.4%) resided in counties with low FI rates, 1048 (33.6%) in moderate FI, and 1929 (62.0%) in counties with high FI. Patients in regions of high FI were more likely to be a Level I trauma activation, a victim of assault, and have Medicaid or be self-pay. There was no significant difference in mortality by levels of FI. Food insecurity was significantly associated with firearm injury, with each percent increase in FI being related to approximately 56 additional gun-related injuries per 100,000 people (95% confidence interval, 54-59) and increased odds of the injury classified as assault (odds ratio, 1.13; 95% confidence interval, 1.07-1.19). Violence prevention initiatives targeting food insecure communities may help alleviate the US gun violence epidemic. Further, trauma center screening for household FI and in-hospital interventions addressing FI may help reduce gun violence recidivism. Prognostic and Epidemiologic; Level IV.

Influence of Commercial Seaweed Extract and Microbial Biostimulant on Growth, Yield, Phytochemical Content, and Nutritional Quality of Five Abelmoschus esculentus Genotypes

Biostimulant application during the cultivation of underutilized crops is an environmental-friendly approach for their production and utilization to promote food security and human health. This study investigated the effect of two commercial biostimulants (a seaweed-based extract, Kelpak® (1:100, 1:40, and 1:20, dilutions), and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria, PGPR (1:5, 1:10, and 1:15, dilutions)) on the growth, yield, phytochemical content, and nutritional quality of five selected Abelmoschus esculentus genotypes. Biostimulant application significantly influenced vegetative growth and yield in a dose-dependent manner. Plant height, chlorophyll content, stem diameter, number of pods, and total pod fresh and dry weights increased with a decrease in dilution of the biostimulants. The application of PGPR (1:5) significantly promoted both the vegetative growth (plant height, chlorophyll content, and stem diameter) and yield (number of pods, total fresh weight, and total dry weight) when compared to the control (untreated plants) and other biostimulant dilutions. Genotype and biostimulant application had an interactive effect on all the phytochemical (total phenolics, flavonoids, and condensed tannins) and nutritional (β-carotene, vitamin C, calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, sodium, and zinc) qualities evaluated. This study demonstrated the differential effect of biostimulant application on A. esculentus genotypes. These biostimulants can be used to enhance growth, yield, biochemical, and nutritional contents of underutilised crops such as A. esculentus, depending on the crop genotype, in order to improve crop productivity and combat food insecurity especially in food insecure communities.

How the Focus on Food Literacy in Ontario’s Food Charter Toolkits Detracts from Meaningful Food (In)Security Action

This article examines the uneasy relationship between the values of food security and food literacy in the context of Ontario’s local food charter discourse. It extends prior research on the competing values and incongruous community identities that food charters constitute by exploring the emerging genre of the food charter toolkit which is intended to help community members implement food charter visions. Situating our analysis within a critical review of recent work on food literacy and its association with food (in)security, we argue that toolkits articulate a superficial and ineffective approach to achieving the food charter goal of “food security for all” because they recommend mainly food literacy initiatives as the primary means for building food-secure communities. Addressed to a privileged audience of citizen-consumers who possess the socio-economic capacity to engage in the toolkits’ recommended actions at both personal and community levels, this genre problematically excludes food-insecure community members as an agentic audience. Despite the ostensible social equity goal to ensure food security for all community members, the prevalence of a neoliberal-communitarian food literacy discourse in the food charter toolkits obscures the systemic-economic causes of, and possible solutions to, food insecurity.

Preserving farm freshness: Consumer preferences for local value-added products at urban farmers markets

Farmers markets (FMs) are known for fresh fruits and vegetables, but many also feature shelf-stable, value-added products (VAPs) like sauces, jams, and fermented produce. Despite the potential impor­tance of locally sourced VAPs to FMs, farmers, and food-insecure communities, few if any studies have examined consumer preferences related to small-batch VAPs of the kind often prepared for sale at FMs. To address this gap in knowledge, this study presents the results of a collaboration between farmers, researchers, and a not-for-profit community kitchen in New Jersey. First, using the Food Choice Process Model as a framework, we conducted focus groups (four focus groups: 6-10 participants per group; 33 participants total) to gain insight into what would make locally sourced VAPs appealing to residents of food-insecure areas. Major themes that emerged were cost, quality, and health; less common themes included culture, food safety, and ethical values. Second, drawing on focus group data, we developed new VAPs—including tomato sauce, applesauce, hot pepper relish and pickled jalapeños—using ingredients from local farms. Third, we conducted controlled sensory evaluations to assess FM customer satis­faction with project-specific VAPs. Urban consum­ers (N=49) ranked a store-bought tomato sauce significantly higher on taste, sweetness, saltiness, and thickness, compared to the VAP version. However, VAP and store-bought applesauces were comparable across most attributes, and reactions to the hot pepper relish and pickled jalapeños were broadly positive. Overall, findings suggest that locally sourced VAPs tailored to the preferences of particular markets may constitute a valuable addi­tion to the local food landscape in food-insecure areas.

Using a Food Bank as a Platform for Educating Communities during the COVID-19 Pandemic

ABSTRACT Purpose To describe a partnership between a public university and a regional foodbank aimed to promote health in food insecure communities, and to support nursing students’ learning experiences in community health. Design A single setting case study. Methods A comprehensive health needs assessment conducted through a windshield survey and key informant interviews was used to identify the community’s priorities. Findings Nursing interventions were tailored to the community’s needs by creating healthy recipes and providing education on food safety, lower back injury prevention, and chronic disease prevention and 15 management. Conclusion During pandemics, nursing program partnerships with food banks could play pivotal roles in community health promotion. Clinical Evidence Food banks can serve as clinical platforms for nursing education and community wellness activities.

Mobile Pantries Can Serve the Most Food Insecure Populations.

Purpose: Food insecurity is an urgent crisis in the United States, with one in nine people lacking a consistent source of the food necessary for an active and healthy lifestyle. This crisis is particularly dire in Maricopa County, Arizona, where 1 in 5 children experience food insecurity, and >1 in 10 residents experience poverty. Mobile food pantries offer an additional resource to address food insecurity; however, there is minimal knowledge about how communities utilize these food distributors.Background: Research on the elderly (people >60 years) and immigrant populations shows that these populations are especially vulnerable to food insecurity. The risk these groups face is compounded in Maricopa County, the 15th largest county in the country with minimal public transit to extant resources. Mobile food pantries offer one solution to this issue, bringing groceries and other important items directly to communities.Methods: This study utilizes data from a food pantry called “Phoenix Rescue Mission” (PRM) on food insecure people's use of PRM's mobile and brick-and-mortar pantries, as well as census data. Using GIS mapping and a multinomial logistic regression model, this research identifies how different demographic groups engage with PRM's brick-and-mortar or mobile pantries.Results: Findings indicate that people aged 60–80 years and immigrant people of color are more likely to use both mobile and brick-and-mortar pantries.Conclusions: This research suggests that mobile pantries can reach the most food insecure populations and local nonprofits and governments can consider implementing mobile pantries to reach food insecure communities.

Socio-demographic, household food security and nutritional status of older (> 50 Y) women from rural Zambian communities: A descriptive study

Socio-demographic factors and household food insecurity are considered to influence the nutritional status of older women. The rapidly growing elderly population in Africa is a concern particularly in sustaining their health and nutritional status. In spite of this, there is a scarcity of information in older Zambian women and this study aimed to assess the socio-demographic factors, nutritional status and household food insecurity status of older women in rural Zambian communities. This cross-sectional study was conducted in Twatasha compound of Kitwe and Ndeke community of Ndola. The socio-demographic characteristics, anthropometric measurements, dietary intakes and household food security were evaluated in a convenience sample of 153 older women (≥ 50 years) through the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). IBM SPSS version 26 was used for descriptive (frequencies, means and standard deviations, and medians with interquartile frequencies) and inferential (bivariate and Spearman correlations) statistical analyses. The socio-demographic characteristics showed that almost all (98.7%) of the participants had other members of the family residing with them. Most participants (57%) had attained primary school education, 19% had secondary education and 5% had college education. Almost half (49%) of the participants did not report their employment status and 36% reported to be unemployed. Over-nutrition was most prevalent (37.3% overweight and 39.8% obese) while 20.9 % and 2.0% of the respondents were normal weight and underweight respectively. The median (25th percentile; 75th percentile) dietary intakes showed inadequate intakes for most nutrients, except for carbohydrates (170 g [133;225]). The total fat intake represented 14% of total energy intake. The majority (86.0%) of the participants were identified as severely food insecure while only 6.0% were food secure. The majority of the participants (80-90%) used at least seven out of the nine behavioural responses to food insecurity. The findings show resource-poor and severely food insecure communities. We recommended urgent interventions to improve access to healthy foods (such as home gardening projects) and promote healthy dietary habits (including nutrition education).

Responding to Intergenerational Food Security and Nutrition Education Needs With Remote Programming

In-person intergenerational programming focused on nutrition education and healthy food access among older adults and preschool children in care settings was abandoned last year when COVID forced center closures. Food for a Long Life (FFLL), a 5-year community-based participatory research (CBPR) project, re-oriented programming in response to heightened community food insecurity and social isolation during COVID. With county Extension agents, FFLL modified and initiated new partnerships to expand food pantry services for several hundred families and deliver nutrition programming to youth (n=28) and older adult (n=130) participants in two states. In this presentation we share how the CBPR method supported adaptive programming and evaluation while continuing to advance project goals, including to promote the sustainability of an intergenerational food pantry and nutrition programming delivery after funding ends in summer 2021.

Abstract 11527: A Pilot of Food Insecurity and Its Sequelae on Health (FISH)

Introduction: Health outcomes data on community interventions addressing food insecurity is scarce. Hypothesis: The FISH Research study measures the effects of an 8 week Geaux Get Healthy Clinical Program (GGH), a program that provides food insecure community members with access to local resources including cooking classes, nutrition classes and grocery store tours. We proposed that addressing food insecurity with the GGH program can improve food insecurity and metabolic health. Methods: Eligible participants included patients who qualified for the GGH Program ages 18-65, were English-speaking and without audiovisual deficits. Upon enrollment, participants met with the Health Specialist and then at 8-12 weeks, and again at 6 months. Participants completed validated surveys regarding access to healthy foods, knowledge of a healthy diet, and motivation to prepare healthy meals; and the PHQ-9 (Patient Health Questionnaire-9) survey. At each visit, vital signs (including weight, height and waist circumference) and laboratory measurements (Hemoglobin A1C, lipid panel) were obtained. Patient data related to chronic disease and ER/hospital utilization was abstracted from the medical record. Results: At the time of this analysis, a total of 53 participants were enrolled. Participants’ average BMI was 34 ( SD =9.06), 64% had diabetes/pre-diabetes and 55% had hypertension at time of enrollment. In the first 6 months, we had 11 (21%) FISH participants complete all assessments. The mean USDA Food Insecurity Scores were 6.9 (very low food security) at initial visit; 4 (low food security) at 8-12 weeks; and 2.7 (low food security) at 6 months. A non-parametric Friedman test of differences among the repeated measures of food security was conducted and resulted in a significant Chi-square value of 9.69 ( p =0.008). Conclusions: We are encouraged that participating in the GGH program may lead to sustainable improvements in food insecurity, at least among those interested in signing up for the FISH research study. We are eager to see the future results of the GGH program’s effects on metabolic health.

Practices and Strategies for Adaptation to Climate Variability in Family Farming. An Analysis of Cases of Rural Communities in the Andes Mountains of Colombia and Chile

Climate variability imposes greater challenges on family farming and especially on rural communities in vulnerable mountainous regions such as the Andes in Latin America. Changes in rainfall patterns and fluctuations in temperatures cause a greater frequency of extreme events, increased pests, and crop diseases, which even lead to food insecurity in communities that depend on self-production for survival. This is why strategies need to be developed to face this new scenario. Two cases of adaptation experiences to the effects of climate variability in rural communities in Chile (Araucanía Region) and Colombia (Cauca Department) were analyzed on this paper. For this, a mixed methodological approach was adopted that included the analysis of climate data, socioeconomic, and productive characterization of the communities, and a characterization of adaptation practices for both cases. The results show various ways of adapting mainly to changes in the availability and access of water for the development of agriculture and for domestic use. Likewise, it is shown that in order to be successful, the measures for facing climate variability must be part of coordinated strategies under a community-based adaptation approach and not developed in isolation.

How partnerships shaped the Dane CARES Farm-to-Food Bank program

The COVID-19 pandemic forced Wisconsin’s food systems institutions into rapid innovation as they responded to rising community food insecurity. With support from the Dane County Executive’s office, federal relief funding eased previously onerous barriers to allow Dane County’s largest food bank to implement a unique local purchasing program: Dane CARES. The program sought to support Dane County producers experiencing reductions in market opportunities, while feeding the rising number of Dane County families experiencing food hardship. Drawing on existing food and agriculture partner­ships, Extension Dane County staff connected partners to assist with project expedition and docu­mented partners’ efforts through a series of semistructured interviews. The program achieved its two primary goals of replacing lost markets for local farmers and facilitating increased food distribution to communities in need. To elevate this multisector collaboration and inspire more great work like Dane CARES, we outline the evidence of program value to farmers’ livelihoods, demonstrate the growth of partner networks to support institutional purchasing of local food, and offer recommendations to improve future program iterations.

Feeding the City, Pandemic and Beyond

Feeding the City, Pandemic and Beyond

Inclusion of Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) Fruit Powder Enhances the Mineral Composition and Antioxidative Potential of Processed Tigernut (Cyperus esculentus) Beverages.

The functional beverage market has recently increased due to the health benefits in addition to their nutritional and thirst-quenching functions. Tigernut is an economic crop with reported health benefits. This study evaluates the antioxidative potential of processed tigernut extracts fortified with baobab fruit pulp powder. The ferric reducing antioxidant potential, 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl were used to determine the antioxidant capacity, while the Folin-Ciocalteu method was used to measure the total phenolic content of the beverages. The inclusion of baobab fruit significantly (P<0.05) increased the total phenolic content by 18% (from 31.06 to 36.83 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 mL) and the flavonoid content by 15∼20%, while the vitamin C content peaked at 39.6 mg/100 mL. There was a significant correlation between the phenolic and vitamin C contents. Overall, the antioxidant potentials were elevated with the inclusion of baobab powder. All the beverages included in this study are good sources of Ca, P, and K; the contents of Ca, P, and K in the roasted tuber extracts with baobab peaked at 210.91, 8.70, and 93.35 μg/mL, respectively. However, the K:Na ratio was greater than 5:1. Although, baobab increased the acidity of the beverages, it did not significantly diminish the consumer acceptability, with the values ranging from 7.62 to 8.40 on a 9-point Hedonic scale. The beverages have potential for use as natural antioxidants and could be recommended for consumers with diets deficient in Ca and K, particularly in food insecure communities. They could also be used as a replacement for sugar-sweetened carbonated beverages.

Food Insecurity and Collateral Consequences of Punishment Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Bipartisan governmental representatives and the public support investment in health care, housing, education, and nutrition programs, plus resources for people leaving prison and jail (Halpin, 2018; Johnson & Beletsky, 2020; USCCR, 2019). The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 banned people with felony drug convictions from receiving food stamps or Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits. Food insecurity, recidivism, and poor mental and physical health outcomes are associated with such bans. Several states have overturned SNAP benefit bans, yet individuals with criminal convictions are still denied benefits due to eligibility criteria modifications. COVID‐19 has impaired lower‐income, food‐insecure communities, which disproportionately absorb people released from prison and jail. Reentry support is sorely lacking. Meanwhile, COVID‐19 introduces immediate novel health risks, economic insecurity, and jail and prison population reductions and early release. Thirty to 50 percent of people in prisons and jails, which are COVID‐19 hotspots, have been released early (Flagg & Neff, 2020; New York Times, 2020; Vera, 2020). The Families First Coronavirus Response Act increases flexibility in providing emergency SNAP supplements and easing program administration during the pandemic. Meanwhile, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights recommends eliminating SNAP benefit restrictions based on criminal convictions, which fail to prevent recidivism, promote public safety, or relate to underlying crimes. Policy improvements, administrative flexibility, and cross‐sector collaboration can facilitate SNAP benefit access, plus safer, healthier transitioning from jail or prison to the community.

Is Solar Powered Irrigation Technology Sustainable Option for Groundwater Irrigation Management in Nepal’s Terai?

The most densely populated Terai Plains of Nepal with poor access to irrigation water in the dry season resulting the food insecure community. Several initiatives have been carried out to improve the irrigation facilities by extracting the ground water resources using solar, diesel, and grid operated electric pumps. Sustainability of all those initiatives and identifying the most viable solution is always in question. In this context, this study attempts to assess the cost effectiveness of these pumping technologies considering life cycle cost (LCC) in the context of Terai region of Nepal. Observation, Key informant interview (KII), in depth interview, and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) were conducted in 14 different sample sites to assess the performance of technology, life cycle cost and unit water cost (UWC) in different capacity utilization factors (CUFs), farmer’s perception, affordability, and profitability. The characteristics considered while selecting the sample sites were of size of pumping system, date of installation, beneficiary households, grid situation, solar vendor, implementing organization, major application of solar pumped water, and major cost associated. Low utilization factor of solar pumps has been observed in almost all sites. Solar pumps become expensive than diesel pump, if it is operated at less than 45% CUF. Grid operated electric pumps are found cost effective than diesel and solar, if gridline is near to pump site. If solar pump is operated at 10% CUF, the per unit water cost is NPR. 24.4, and the cost is reduced to NPR. 2.83, if it is operated at 90% CUF. Solar pumps need to be operated at least 700 hours per year to compete with diesel pump. The payback period for solar pump was calculated considering cost per unit of water at three different price NRs 5.51, 7.92, and 10 and found as 6.97, 4.1, and 3.14 year respectively for 70% utilization factor. High upfront cost of solar powered system, poor access to financing and technology seems to be hindering factor to popularize the system. Effective supply chain network, easy access to repairing service, introduction of cash crops instead of traditional crops, promotion of micro irrigation techniques, better access to finance and technology, operation of solar pump at high CUF through grid connection to sell/buy surplus/deficit energy, and subsidized price of solar operated irrigation technology could help to become solar powered techniques as sustainable option in near future to popularize and easy operation for irrigation water management in Terai Region of Nepal. However, Government needs to formulate and implement the policy for utilization and overexploitation of groundwater resources with expansion of solar, diesel, and electric operated pumps in near future to make groundwater resources sustainable.