Community-based Conservation Initiatives Research Articles

Assessing Indicators and Limitations of Food Security Objectives in Coral Reef Restoration

Coral reef restoration is often presented as a marine conservation solution that provides ‘win-win’ outcomes. However, most studies on reef restoration have focused on the biological success, while little is known about whether social objectives are ever achieved. This study investigates a reef restoration initiative in the Spermonde archipelago, Indonesia, where food security was initially presented as an intended social outcome. We utilised an ethnographic mixed-methods approach to investigate: 1) perceived sociocultural benefits of coral restoration to the local community; 2) impacts of reef restoration on local food security; and 3) local sociocultural barriers and limitations of reef restoration as a mechanism for improving food security. We found fish contributed to food security primarily as an income source to purchase food. Local people mainly valued nearby reefs for storm protection. Furthermore, most fishers are organised through patron-client systems that target pelagic species; therefore they currently have minimal dependency on adjacent reefs. However, fishing restrictions linked to the restoration programme still negatively impacted both pelagic fishers and a small population of reef-based fishers—indirectly by damaging reciprocal fishing relations with neighbouring islands and directly by limiting access to local reefs. Complex social and trade networks associated with patron-client networks present potential barriers for transitioning to reef-based fisheries and eradicating the use of destructive fishing gear, therefore limiting access to potential food security benefits generated from reef restoration. These findings show that the relationship between coral restoration and food security is tenuous and cannot be assumed. These findings also demonstrate that social dynamics surrounding community-based conservation initiatives are complex and context-dependent, and such details must be considered when designing marine habitat restoration initiatives.

Effectiveness of non-lethal predator deterrents to reduce livestock losses to leopard attacks within a multiple-use landscape of the Himalayan region.

Lethal measures are widely adopted by local communities and governments to manage human-wildlife conflicts. Such measures lead to large scale decline of carnivore populations globally with trophic cascades on ecosystems and questionable impacts on human-wildlife conflicts. Mitigating human-carnivore conflicts through non-lethal measures will protect endangered predators and secure livelihoods. However, information on the effectiveness of such measures are extremely limited and hence cannot be applied in developing scientific evidence. Further to develop human-carnivore coexistence models, it is important for local community members, biologists and wildlife managers to actively participate in conservation programs. We evaluated the response of a non-lethal visual deterrent (i.e. fox lights) to deter leopard attacks on livestock within a multiple-use landscape of western Himalaya through community engagement. We monitored 16 experimental sites and 17 control sites within 27 villages and recorded data on livestock depredation by leopards between April 2018 to April 2019. A multivariate analysis was conducted to determine the influence of landscape predictors and animal husbandry practices on livestock depredation by leopards within the vicinity of human settlements. We found that visual deterrents discouraged common leopards to predate on livestock (cows and goats). We also demonstrated that community based conservation initiatives are successful in mitigating human-carnivore conflicts within large semi-natural landscapes. We suggest developing site specific coexistence strategies and adopting non-lethal measures to safeguard carnivores, livestock and humans within shared landscapes.

Conditions for Success in a Community Based Conservation Initiative: An Analysis of Triggering Moments and Catalytic Elements in Nuha

What accounts for a successful community-based conservation (CBC) initiative? A bulk of studies has answered the question by identifying the principles as well as underlying relations that make up successful cases. However, rarely do they extend to examine the basic elements (or ingredients) that contribute to a successful case. Using the analytic framing of triggering moments and catalytic elements, this study describes the key factors that contributed to ongoing successes in achieving the outputs and goals of CBC. A recent CBC project in the Lake Malili Complex of South Sulawesi is examined as a case study to test the framework. The CBC initiative was carried out by a local NGO and university. The case village (Nuha) is chosen for its ability to continue implementing programmatic objectives according to project reports. In-depth interviews, a close review of grey literature about the project, as well as field observations in Nuha and surrounding villages provide the data that forms the basis of the analysis about the factors contributing to Nuha success. Findings show that the framework of triggering moments and catalytic elements can help to show the key factors of crises and windows of opportunity that contribute strongly to stimulating community responses to a CBC initiative. Furthermore, although not all catalytic elements were present, certain identified factors – participation, commitment of key actors, funding, capacity building, partnership with supportive organizations and governments, and leadership – were strong enough to stimulate effective implementation of the CBC initiative. Nevertheless, the analytic framework of triggering moments and catalytic elements is less capable of provide the context for why the catalytic elements were present prior to the introduction of the CBC initiative.

Impact of Tanzania’s Wildlife Management Areas on household wealth

Large-scale area-based conservation measures affect millions of people globally. Understanding their social impacts is necessary to improve effectiveness and minimize negative consequences. However, quantifying the impacts of conservation measures that affect large geographic areas and diverse peoples is expensive and methodologically challenging, particularly because such evaluations should capture locally defined conceptions of well-being while permitting policy-relevant comparisons. Here, we measure the impact of Tanzania’s Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs), a national community-based conservation and poverty reduction initiative. We use a novel, cost-effective impact evaluation method based on participatory wealth ranking and Bayesian multilevel modelling. We find that from 2007 to 2015 the impacts of WMAs on wealth were small and variable, with no clear evidence of widespread poverty reduction. Accompanying qualitative data suggest that apparently positive effects in one WMA cannot be directly attributed to WMA activities. Our results suggest that current WMA policy needs to be revisited if it is to promote positive local development. A novel method to assess the impacts of large-scale conservation interventions on household wealth while capturing local heterogeneity reveals small and variable impacts of a nationwide conservation programme in Tanzania.

Bird conservation from obscurity to popularity: a case study of two bird species from Northeast India

This paper discusses how competing value systems of different interest groups, help the obscure and lesser known species to become a part of a global conservation project. We analyse two community-based conservation initiatives where two littleknown bird species Bugun liocichla (Liocichla bugunorum) and Amur falcon (Falco amurensis) have transformed the state of the landscape with a series of initiatives by Governments, NGOs and scientists. Bugun liocichla is found in only one location of Arunachal Pradesh and its population is currently as low as 14 individuals. Amur falcon is a migratory bird of prey that visits Nagaland in millions to roost for 2 months. This paper particularly, focuses on how the idea of conservation NGOs is introduced at the community level and how particular bird species gain popularity, locally and internationally. Using the notion of value, we examine how and why species gain specific value/s when the conservation projects are designed and implemented in community-based conservation projects in Northeast India. Based on ethnographic research, we have used semi-structured interviews and participant observation to gather information from key informants. We found that these bird species attain specific cultural, commercial and conservation values depending on various ecological, economic and social factors. In the process of conservation, the birds also become ‘development’ icons for the landscape. We argue that the two species have attained a ‘universal value’ attuned to the philosophies of global capitalist market and global conservation.

The future of walnut–fruit forests in Kyrgyzstan and the status of the iconic Endangered apple Malus niedzwetzkyana

AbstractForest ecosystems are rich in biodiversity and provide valuable ecosystem services, but are declining worldwide. Malus niedzwetzkyana, an Endangered wild relative of domesticated apples, is an important component of the walnut–fruit forests of Central Asia. Its iconic pink blossom and genetic properties give it special cultural and scientific significance, but livestock grazing and firewood collection threaten its survival. The conservation of the species and its native forest ecosystem is critical and urgent. This study provides information on the ecology and population of M. niedzwetzkyana and the threats affecting its habitat, improving our understanding of its distribution and proposing measures to reduce threats. We collected ecological data and assessed population structure and threats at four forest sites in southern Kyrgyzstan. We mapped 149 individuals, creating the largest known dataset for this species. We developed species distribution models for M. niedzwetzkyana to identify climatically suitable regions and potential areas for restoration. Sary-Chelek Biosphere Reserve contained the largest expanse of pristine forest and the most stable M. niedzwetzkyana population, followed by Kara-Alma Forestry Unit. Forests in the Gava Forestry Unit and Dashman Reserve were most extensively damaged by humans and livestock. The wild apple's favoured habitat was south-west facing slopes with a gradient < 30° and a relatively open canopy. Overall, the study population was vulnerable to extinction with limited regeneration potential. We recommend short-term population enhancement through planting projects and increased protection of individuals in pristine sites. Community-based conservation initiatives should be prioritized in extensively damaged sites, and larger-scale reforestation of these forests needs to be considered.

Standardizing the evaluation of community-based conservation success.

Community-based conservation, which strives to simultaneously improve nature conservation and alleviate poverty, must provide biological and socioeconomic benefits that are linked through effective resilience mechanisms. To date, few community-based conservation initiatives have published comprehensive assessments that track performance in these elements of success. With 45% of the world's protected areas in comanagement with local communities, standardized measures to effectively evaluate the dual goals of community-based conservation are needed. We here introduce SPECCS, a user-friendly Standardized Protocol for Evaluating Community Conservation Success that incorporates an appraisal of data quality to responsibly assess progress over time or to compare effectiveness among different initiatives. We illustrate SPECCS's use by evaluating the Wechiau Community Hippo Sanctuary (WCHS) of northern Ghana 10 and 20yr after its inception. The WCHS has the dual objective of protecting one of Ghana's few remaining hippopotamus populations while alleviating poverty in the surrounding communities through the creation of economic opportunity and infrastructure development. Results suggest stable project performance in the 10-yr (76%) and 20-yr (76%) evaluation, with an improvement in evaluation quality from 30% to 34%. The project is currently stronger in socioeconomic (performance 86%; quality 30%) than biological (60%; 32%) outcomes and in benefits (83%, 42%) than resilience (63%, 21%). Biological resilience is challenged by poor connectivity and limited project control over threats, whereas socioeconomic resilience is affected by a decision balance that continues to favor external stakeholders. SPECCS helps pinpoint strengths and weaknesses for timely adaptive management, strategic investments, and evidence-based recognition of community-based conservation successes.

Seasonal movements of wildlife and livestock in a heterogenous pastoral landscape: Implications for coexistence and community based conservation

Rangelands across the world are home to millions of pastoral people and vast wildlife populations, which create a complex landscape for conservation. Community based conservation has been used to promote human-wildlife coexistence on pastoral lands, protecting wildlife outside of official protected areas. With the spread of community based conservation within the rangelands there is a need for more information on successful management practices. This study provides an example of this in the South Rift, Kenya, where seasonal movements of pastoralists aid coexistence. We used Density Surface Modelling (DSM), a novel tool for conservation managers in the rangelands, to predict wildlife and livestock abundance across the landscape and seasons. Wildlife grazers, zebra (Equus burchelli) and wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), follow expected metabolic patterns, feeding on short grass outside the conservation area in the wet season, before returning to the taller-lower quality grazing in the conservation areas during the drought. Browsing wildlife, impala (Aepyceros melampus) and Grant’s gazelle (Nanger granti), move from open grassland and bushland areas into thicker, denser browse as the seasons progress towards the drought. Livestock, both shoats (Ovis aries, and Capra aegagrus hircus) and cattle (Bos indicus), are managed by community grazing committees, who enforce a grazing plan that creates spatial–temporal separation between wildlife and livestock. They exploit the high-quality grazing in the livestock area during the wet season while conserving pasture in the conservation area, which is utilized only as forage is depleted. This ensures that wildlife has access to a diverse resource base across all seasons and potentially reduces competition, allowing for a diverse and abundant wildlife community to coexist with livestock. This highlights the importance of the presence and maintenance of spatial and temporal heterogeneity of forage resources, through livestock management, for community based conservation. We encourage more community based conservation initiatives in pastoral landscapes to incorporate livestock management into planning.

What Does Conservation Mean for Women? the Case of the Cantanhez Forest National Park

Community-based conservation programmes need to engage the support of all its members. Gender is a key component in shaping attitudes about conservation, and lack of attention to gender differences in perceptions can work against the aims of community-based conservation actions and initiatives. We present a study of the obstacles to women's participation in conservation strategies associated with Cantanhez Forest National Park (CFNP), in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa. Field-work took place in CFNP over two years, 2007-2008. Five women-only focus group interviews (N=47 participants) were conducted to understand the perceived effects of CFNP's establishment on women's daily activities, livelihoods and future expectations. The findings revealed that the women felt the Park was responsible for malnutrition in the communities due to damage of crops by wildlife. Although they were promised compensation, most of the farming households are still waiting for reimbursements for crop damage. Women expressed an unwillingness to directly participate in conservation efforts related to CFNP, but they believed that park researchers could help them to improve their lives.

Opportunities and constraints for community-based conservation: The case of the KwaZulu-Natal Sandstone Sourveld grassland, South Africa

Background: South Africa is characterised by high levels of biodiversity and species endemism alongside critical levels of socio-economic vulnerability, demonstrating potential for conservation practices that provide both environmental and social benefits. It is argued that communitybased conservation (CBC) practices can be strategically positioned to achieve environmental conservation objectives as well as promote local-level socio-economic development. The KwaZulu-Natal Sandstone Sourveld (KZNSS) vegetation type is classified as endemic (to KZN, South Africa), and is at present listed as endangered. Additionally, one of the KZNSS grassland patches occurs adjacent to the low-income peri-urban community of iNanda. The study examined local community uses and perceptions of the vegetation type. Objectives: To examine the uses, perceptions and attitudes displayed by the iNanda community towards the KZNSS grassland patch. Furthermore, it is hoped that the results of this study can be utilised to inform the potential use of CBC strategies within socio-economic contexts such as iNanda. Method: A mixed methodological approach was adopted, focusing on iNanda as the case study. One hundred households were purposively interviewed. Descriptive and chi-square statistical tests were carried out to examine main data trends. Results: Respondents displayed alarming levels of unemployment (61%) and 34% relied on state grants as a source of household income. Households used the grassland for subsistence (51%), grazing (14%), recreational (13%) and cultural purposes (12%). Respondents displayed limited awareness of conservation and the ecological importance of the grassland. However, respondents recognised the need to conserve the grassland based on their perception of changes to the adjacent patch. Conclusion: Potential grassland conservation plans should consider the current use displayed by respondents. Participatory approaches to conservation such as CBC initiatives could provide much-needed socio-economic and conservation benefits.

Gender Differentiated Preferences for a Community-Based Conservation Initiative.

Community-based conservation (CBC) aims to benefit local people as well as to achieve conservation goals, but has been criticised for taking a simplistic view of “community” and failing to recognise differences in the preferences and motivations of community members. We explore this heterogeneity in the context of Kenya’s conservancies, focussing on the livelihood preferences of men and women living adjacent to the Maasai Mara National Reserve. Using a discrete choice experiment we quantify the preferences of local community members for key components of their livelihoods and conservancy design, differentiating between men and women and existing conservancy members and non-members. While Maasai preference for pastoralism remains strong, non-livestock-based livelihood activities are also highly valued and there was substantial differentiation in preferences between individuals. Involvement with conservancies was generally perceived to be positive, but only if households were able to retain some land for other purposes. Women placed greater value on conservancy membership, but substantially less value on wage income, while existing conservancy members valued both conservancy membership and livestock more highly than did non-members. Our findings suggest that conservancies can make a positive contribution to livelihoods, but care must be taken to ensure that they do not unintentionally disadvantage any groups. We argue that conservation should pay greater attention to individual-level differences in preferences when designing interventions in order to achieve fairer and more sustainable outcomes for members of local communities.

Anidación y conservación de la tortuga lora (Lepidochelys olivacea) en playa Drake, península de Osa, Costa Rica (2006 a 2012)

Desde 2006 a 2012, la anidación de la tortuga lora (Lepidochelys olivacea) fue monitoreada en bahía Drake, un enclave reconocido internacionalmente por su excelente oferta eco-turística que se localiza en la región noroeste de la península de Osa. Sorprendentemente, esta área dispone de playas de anidación solitaria de tortuga lora que han permanecido casi desadvertidas hasta fechas recientes. Durante este periodo de monitoreo, 958 nidos fueron registrados en playa Drake (promedio anual: 136.9; densidad: 3.80 nidos/100m de playa), de los cuales 363 (37.9%) fueron reubicados a un vivero. Antes de 2006, la pérdida anual de nidos fue superior al 85% debido al saqueo en playa; desde 2006, el porcentaje del saqueo de nidos se mantuvo en un promedio del 10.1%. Además, un total de 335 hembras fueron identificadas con placas metálicas; el promedio de la longitud curva del caparazón fue de 66.1cm; el promedio del ancho curvo del caparazón fue de 70.2cm, y el tamaño promedio por nidada fue de 96.3 huevos. El promedio del éxito de eclosión para los nidos reubicados en vivero fue de 79.2%, y más de 61 000 neonatos fueron liberados al mar durante este periodo. Este proyecto es un ejemplo de una iniciativa exitosa de conservación, eco-turismo y desarrollo comunitario.

Sacred Groves: Floristic Diversity and their Role in Conservation of Nature

Sacred Groves, one form of nature worship, are considered as “Sacred Natural Sites”. Indian sacred groves represent a diverse spectrum of ecosystem. Groves are present amidst the barren landscape or grassland (e.g., in Meghalaya), hill slope (Nagoni in Himalaya), amidst the agricultural landscape (in West Bengal, Karnataka), coastal plain (e.g., Edayilekkadu in Kerala) and Rajasthan desert. With the rapid ongoing changes in society and land use patterns, nowhere except groves one can expect regional ecosystem characteristics which can be served as models or replica for researchers and educators. The importance of sacred grove in nature conservation has been increased manifold in recent time especially after the declaration of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Community based conservation initiatives are one of the prime agendas for CBD for which sacred grove tradition can be portrayed as role model. The importance of sacred groves in socio-religious life as well as livelihood security has been felt by the indigenous communities from time immemorial which are actually substantiated by numerous local customs, folk lore, social and religious taboos throughout India.

Toward More Effective Benefit Sharing in South African National Parks

More examples of positive and negative outcomes of community-based conservation initiatives aimed at benefit sharing are surfacing globally, and there is increasing interest in who wins and who loses at multiple scales. However, the term “benefit sharing” is not well defined in the context of protected areas, hindering the effective implementation thereof. We define benefit sharing as the process of making informed and fair trade-offs between social, economic, and ecological costs and benefits within and between stakeholder groups, and between stakeholders and the natural environment. We explore identifying appropriate benefits in certain contexts and monitoring benefit sharing initiatives using relevant qualitative and quantitative indicators. Finally, we use an illustrative case study of mopane worm harvesting from the Kruger National Park in South Africa to explore how benefit sharing as defined in the article can be implemented using a strategic adaptive management approach during the planning, assessment, and reporting phases.

The Role of Values in a Community-Based Conservation Initiative in Northern Ghana

In this paper we demonstrate the importance of non-economic values to community-based conservation by presenting findings from research into Kunlog Community Resource Management Area (CREMA) in northern Ghana. One of the central motivations for creating the CREMA was to reinforce a traditional taboo on bushbuck, and while some respondents mentioned the possibility of eventually attracting tourists, the primary desire behind the CREMA is to protect bushbuck and other wildlife for future generations. Several respondents emphasised wanting children and grandchildren to be able to grow up seeing the wildlife. Material benefits should not be the sole focus of those involved in promoting and legislating frameworks for community-based conservation – frameworks such as Ghana's CREMA policy. Government frameworks for the creation, registration and regulation of conservation initiatives should be flexible and able to accommodate diverse community-based conservation initiatives driven from a variety of mixes of motivations, including motivations deriving from non-material values.

Distribution of Radiated Tortoise (Astrochelys radiata) Bush Meat Poaching Effort

Abstract The radiated tortoise (Astrochelys radiata) is facing a significant risk of extinction within the next few decades as a direct result of poaching due to the increasing popularity of the species as bush meat. Sampling across the species range revealed a mean carcass encounter rate of 2.2/km of transect, with highest levels of poaching within the Linta and Menarandra river regions. No poaching was recorded within the 2 protected areas within the core of the species range. Improved local law enforcement, in addition to community-based conservation initiatives, is critical to combating this crisis.

Conservation needs of the coconut crab Birgus latro on the Nicobar Islands, India

AbstractWe describe the distribution of the coconut crab Birgus latro, categorized as Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List, local perspectives towards the species, and its conservation needs on the Nicobar Islands in the eastern Indian Ocean. The species is threatened with extinction across most of its range and in India it is found only on a few islands in the Andaman and Nicobar archipelagoes. We carried out informal discussions with Nicobari communities to examine issues regarding conservation of the species and conducted timed searches in areas where coconut crabs were likely to be found. The discussions revealed that there are social taboos against hunting the coconut crab on most of the Nicobar Islands. However, on some islands these taboos are not being followed and community members may hunt the crab for consumption. Athough the coconut crab is legally protected under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act none of the villagers were aware of this. Of the six islands surveyed we recorded the presence of 17 and 14 crabs on two islands, respectively. On four islands villagers reported the presence of the crab prior to the tsunami of 2004, and on two of these islands the species may now be locally extinct. A small population size and a fragmented distribution in areas of coconut plantations suggest that the species is threatened. We recommend monitoring and detailed research on the ecology and genetics of the coconut crab, along with community-based conservation initiatives to conserve the species and its habitat.

Customizing a rangefinder for community-based wildlife conservation initiatives

Population size of many threatened and endangered species is relatively unknown because estimating animal abundance in remote parts of the world, without access to aircraft for surveying vast areas, is a scientific challenge with few proposed solutions. One option is to enlist local community members and train them in data collection for large line transect or point count surveys, but financial and sometimes technological constraints prevent access to the necessary equipment and training for accurately quantifying distance measurements. Such measurements are paramount for generating reliable estimates of animal density. This problem was overcome in a survey of Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) in the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area, Mongolia, by converting an inexpensive optical sporting rangefinder into a species-specific rangefinder with visual-based categorical labels. Accuracy trials concluded 96.86% of 350 distance measures matched those from a laser rangefinder. This simple customized optic subsequently allowed for a large group of minimally-trained observers to simultaneously record quantitative measures of distance, despite language, education, and skill differences among the diverse group. The large community-based effort actively engaged local residents in species conservation by including them as the foundation for collecting scientific data.

Corruption or an Alternative System? Re-assessing Corruption and the role of the Forest Services in the Northern Areas, Pakistan

SUMMARY During the last two decades, considerable attention has been paid to the issue of local participation and government involvement in communitybased conservation initiatives. While the main purpose to introduce such measures was to increase transparency and local decision making in resource management, forest services have been sidelined, mainly on the premise that they are too corrupt and ineffective to play a useful role in natural resource management. In this paper, we expose the limitations of conventional ideas of corruption in understanding forestry services. Corruption for personal gains is just one aspect of the issue. We analyze how forest agents, faced with severe shortages of resources, engage in what we call an ‘alternative system’ in order to perform official tasks. We argue that a better understanding of these issues will help to both reform and redefine the role of forest services so that they can become viable actors in community-based conservation.

Ten years of adaptive community-governed conservation: evaluating biodiversity protection and poverty alleviation in a West African hippopotamus reserve

SUMMARYCommunity-based natural resource management has been accused of failing on social, economic or ecological grounds. Balanced assessments are rare, however, particularly in West Africa. This paper examines the first 10 years of Ghana's Wechiau Community Hippo Sanctuary using an evaluation framework that considers socioeconomic and ecological outcomes, as well as resilience mechanisms. Building upon traditional taboos against the killing of hippopotami, this initiative has attempted to conserve an imperilled large mammal, protect biodiversity and alleviate abject poverty amidst a bush meat crisis and complex ethnic diversity. Findings show that the Sanctuary has improved local livelihoods by spurring economic diversification and infrastructure development rates 2–8 times higher than in surrounding communities. Simultaneously, threats to biodiversity have subsided, hippopotamus numbers have remained stable and the Sanctuary's riparian habitats now harbour more bird species than comparable areas nearby. Improved social capital, true empowerment, an equitable distribution of benefits, ecological awareness among children and support for the Sanctuary, even amongst community members who were disadvantaged by its creation, speak to good long-term prospects. Risks remain, some of which are beyond the community's control, but evidence of socioecological resilience suggests that capacity exists to buffer risks and foster sustainability. Lessons learnt at Wechiau translate into recommendations for the planning, implementation and evaluation of future community-based conservation initiatives, including greater interdisciplinary integration and the use of adaptive co-management approaches.